The use of natural products to promote health is as old as human civilization. In recent years, the perception of natural products derived from plants as abundant sources of biologically active compounds has driven their exploitation towards the search for new chemical products that can lead to further pharmaceutical formulations. Candida fungi, being opportunistic pathogens, increase their virulence by acquiring resistance to conventional antimicrobials, triggering diseases, especially in immunosuppressed hosts. They are also pointed to as the main pathogens responsible for most fungal infections of the oral cavity. This increased resistance to conventional synthetic antimicrobials has driven the search for new molecules present in plant extracts, which have been widely explored as alternative agents in the prevention and treatment of infections.
Plant Name | Plant Extract | Compound | Microorganism | Results | References | |||
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Antimicrobial Activity | Antibiofilm Activity | |||||||
Allium sativum L. | Essential oil (bulbs) | Allicin, alliin, ajoene [75] | C. albicans ATCC 14053 | MIC | 8.0 μg∙mL−1 | >99.9% reduction | 8.00 μg∙mL−1 | [74] |
IZD | 19.0 mm (50.0 μg∙mL−1) | |||||||
Aloysia gratissima (Aff & Hook) Tronc. | Essential oil (leaves) | (E)-pinocamphone, β-pinene, guaiol |
C. albicans CBS 562 | MIC | 0.015 mg∙mL−1 | 12.3% inhibition | 1.00 mg∙mL−1 | [64] |
MFC | 0.062 mg∙mL−1 | |||||||
Artemisia judaica L. | Essential oil (aerial plant parts) | Piperitone, camphor, ethyl cinnamate, chrysanthenone | C. albicans ATCC 10231 | MIC | 1.25 μg∙mL−1 | 50.0% reduction | 2.5 μg∙mL−1 | [100] |
Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. | Aqeuous extract (seeds) | Quassinoids, alkaloids, |
C. albicans ATCC 14053 | - | 94.5% CSH reduction 79.7% adherence reduction |
6.00 mg∙mL−1 | [101] | |
C. dubliniensis ATCC MYA-2975 | 90.4% CSH reduction 27.9% adherence reduction |
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C. glabrata ATCC 90030 | 84.8% CSH reduction 76.8% adherence reduction |
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C. krusei ATCC 14243 | 97.0% CSH reduction 67.6% adherence reduction |
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C. lusitaniae ATCC 64125 | 91.1% CSH reduction 89.0% adherence reduction |
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C. parapsilosis ATCC 22019 | 98.8% CSH reduction 49.0% adherence reduction |
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C. tropicalis ATCC 13803 | 88.4% CSH reduction 89.9% adherence reduction |
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Cassia spectabilis DC. | Methanol extract (leaves) | (+)-spectaline; (−)-iso-6-cassine [102] | C. albicans 1 (CI) | MIC IZD |
6.25 mg∙mL−1 20 mm (100 mg∙mL−1) |
97% inhibition | 6.25 mg∙mL−1 | [103] |
C. albicans 2 (CI) | MIC IZD |
6.25 mg∙mL−1 21 mm (100 mg∙mL−1) |
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C. albicans 3 (CI) | MIC IZD |
6.25 mg∙mL−1 23 mm (100 mg∙mL−1) |
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Chenopodium ambrosioides L. | Aqueous extract (leaves) | Kaempferol, quercetin | C. albicans ATCC 90028 | MIC | 0.250 mg∙mL−1 | >99.0% reduction | 1.25 mg∙mL−1 | [104] |
MFC | 0.250 mg∙mL−1 | |||||||
Cinnamomum cassia L. J.Presl | Essential oil (leaves, bark, stalk) | Cinnamaldehyde, benzyl benzoate, α-pinene | C. albicans ATCC 90028 | MIC | 65.5 µg∙mL−1 | >99.9% reduction | 1.00 mg∙mL−1 | [80] |
MFC | ||||||||
Cinnamomum verum J.Presl | Essential oil (leaves) | Eugenol, benzyl benzoate, trans-caryophyllene, acetyle eugenol, linalool | C. albicans ATCC MYA-2876 | MIC | 1.0 mg∙mL−1 | 50% reduction | 0.15 mg∙mL−1 | [105] |
50% inhibition | 1.0 mg∙mL−1 | |||||||
C. tropicalis ATCC 750 | 50% reduction | 0.35 mg∙mL−1 | ||||||
50% inhibition | >2.0 mg∙mL−1 | |||||||
C. dubliniensis ATCC MYA-646 | 50% reduction | 0.2 mg∙mL−1 | ||||||
50% inhibition | 0.2 mg∙mL−1 | |||||||
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume | Essential oil (leaves) | Cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate, cinnamyl benzoate [79] | C. albicans ATCC 10231 | MIC | 0.1 µg∙mL−1 | 99.75% reduction | 1.6 µg∙mL−1 | [106] |
MFC | 0.4 µg∙mL−1 | |||||||
IZD | 42.5 mm (50 µg∙mL−1) | |||||||
Coriandrum sativum L. | Essential oil (leaves) | Decanal, trans-2-decenal, 2-decen-1-ol, cyclodecane, cis-2-dodecenal | C. albicans CBS 562 | MIC | 15.6 µg∙mL−1 | 53.43% inhibition | 62.50 µg∙mL−1 | [107] |
MFC | 31.2 µg∙mL−1 | |||||||
C. tropicalis CBS 94 | MIC | 31.2 µg∙mL−1 | 89.76% inhibition | 125 µg∙mL−1 | ||||
MFC | 62.5 µg∙mL−1 | |||||||
C. krusei CBS 573 | MIC | 15.6 µg∙mL−1 | 42.13% inhibition | 15.62 µg∙mL−1 | ||||
MFC | 31.2 µg∙mL−1 | |||||||
C. dubliniensis CBS 7987 | MIC | 31.2 µg∙mL−1 | 61.51% inhibition | 62.50 µg∙mL−1 | ||||
MFC | 62.5 µg∙mL−1 | |||||||
C. rugosa CBS 12 | MIC | 15.6 µg∙mL−1 | 68.03% inhibition | 62.50 µg∙mL−1 | ||||
MFC | 31.2 µg∙mL−1 | |||||||
Croton urucurana Baill. | Methanol extract (stems) | (epi)-catechin dimer I [108] | C. albicans ATCC 10231 | - | 46.0% inhibition | 0.500 mg∙mL−1 | [109] | |
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf |
Essential oil (leaves) | Citral, neral, β-myrcene, geraniol [110] | C. albicans ATCC 10231 | MIC | 0.1 µL∙mL−1 | 99.79% reduction | 6.4 µL∙mL−1 | [106] |
MFC | 0.4 µL∙mL−1 | |||||||
IZD | 18.2 mm (5% v.v−1) | |||||||
Ethanol extract (leaves) | Citral, geraniol, neral, camphene, limonene [111] | C. albicans ATCC 18804 | MIC | 0.625 mg∙mL−1 | >99.9% inhibition | 3.13 mg∙mL−1 | [112] | |
MFC | 2.50 mg∙mL−1 | 94.0% reduction | 6.25 mg∙mL−1 | |||||
Cymbopogon nardus L. Rendle | Essential oil (leaves) | Citronellal, citronellol, geraniol | C. albicans ATCC 76645 | MIC | 32.0 µg∙mL−1 | >99.0% inhibition | 32.0 µg∙mL−1 | [113] |
MFC | ||||||||
Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt | Essential oil (leaves) | Citronellal, citronellol, geraniol | C. albicans ATCC 90028 | MIC | 250 µg∙mL−1 | >99.0% reduction | 1.00 mg∙mL−1 | [80] |
MFC | ||||||||
Cyperus articulatus L. | Essential oil (bulbs) | α-pinene, mustakone, α-bulnesene | C. albicans CBS 562 | MIC | 0.125 mg∙mL−1 | 28.1% inhibition | 1.00 mg∙mL−1 | [112] |
MFC | 0.500 mg∙mL−1 | |||||||
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. | Essential oil (leaves) | Hyperoside, quercitrin, myricetin [114] | C. albicans ATCC 14053 | MFC | 0.219 mg∙mL−1 | 86% reduction | 22.5 mg∙mL−1 | [115] |
C. tropicalis ATCC 66029 | 0.885 mg∙mL−1 | 85% reduction | ||||||
C. glabrata ATCC 66032 | 0.219 mg∙mL−1 | 85.2% reduction | ||||||
Houttuynia cordata Thunb | Ethanol extract (leaves) | Aldehydes | C. albicans CAD1 | MFC | >2.17 mg∙mL−1 | 70.0% reduction | 1.00% (v/v) | [116] |
Lippia sidoides Cham. | Essential oil (leaves) | Thymol, p-cymene, α-caryophyllene | C. albicans CBS 562 | MIC | 0.250 mg∙mL−1 | 16.5% inhibition | 1.00 mg∙mL−1 | [117] |
MFC | 0.500 mg∙mL−1 | |||||||
Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel | Essential oil (leaves) | Terpinen-4-ol, γ-terpinene, p-cymene, α-terpinene,1,8-cineole, α-terpineol, α-pinene | C. albicans ATCC 18804 | MIC | 1.95 mg∙mL−1 | MBEC | 125 mg∙mL−1 | [118] |
Essential oil (leaves) | Terpinen-4-ol, γ-terpinene, α-terpinene, terpinolene, 1,8-cineole | C. albicans ATCC 10231 | MIC | 3.40 mg∙mL−1 | 131% adherence reduction | 0.75% (v/v) | [119] | |
C. albicans SC5314 | MIC | 0.84 mg∙mL−1 | 76.0% adherence reduction | |||||
Mikania glomerata Spreng | Essential oil (leaves) | Germacrene D, α-caryophyllene, bicyclogermacrene | C. albicans CBS 562 | MIC | 0.250 mg∙mL−1 | 22.7% inhibition | 1.00 mg∙mL−1 | [117] |
MFC | 0.250 mg∙mL−1 | |||||||
Piper betle L. | Aqueous extract (leaves) | Hydroxychavicol, cinnamoyl derivatives, luteolin, apigenin [120] | C. albicans ATCC 14053 | - | 38.6% CSH reduction 61.4% adherence reduction |
6.00 mg∙mL−1 | [101] | |
C. dubliniensis ATCC MYA-2975 | 78.3% CSH reduction 21.4% adherence reduction |
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C. glabrata ATCC 90030 | 71.4% CSH reduction 12.4% adherence reduction |
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C. krusei ATCC 14243 | 31.6% CSH reduction 56.4% adherence reduction |
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C. lusitaniae ATCC 64125 | 67.5% CSH reduction 47.6% adherence reduction |
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C. parapsilosis ATCC 22019 | 48.1% CSH reduction 46.5% adherence reduction |
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C. tropicalis ATCC 13803 | 29.7% CSH reduction 86.9% adherence reduction |
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Rosmarinus officinalis L. | Liposoluble extract (leaves) | Carnosic acid, carnosol [121] | C. albicans ATCC 18804 | MIC | 0.78 mg∙mL−1 | 99.9% reduction | 200 mg∙mL−1 | [122] |
MMC | 3.13 mg∙mL−1 | |||||||
Satureja hortensis L. | Essential oil (leaves and flowers) | Thymol, λ-terpinene, carvacrol, p-cymene | C. albicans F81 (CI) | MIC MFC |
300 µg∙mL−1 400 µg∙mL−1 |
91.0% inhibition 91.0% reduction |
4.80 mg∙mL−1 | [123] |
C. albicans F94 (CI) | 200 µg∙mL−1 300 µg∙mL−1 |
90.0% inhibition 80.0% reduction |
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C. albicans F87 (CI) | 300 µg∙mL−1 400 µg∙mL−1 |
86.0% inhibition 76.0% reduction |
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C. albicans F49 (CI) | 400 µg∙mL−1 600 µg∙mL−1 |
92.0% inhibition 92.0% reduction |
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C. albicans F82 (CI) | 400 µg∙mL−1 600 µg∙mL−1 |
89.0% inhibition 89.0% reduction |
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C. albicans F95 (CI) | 400 µg∙mL−1 | 81.0% inhibition 81.0% reduction |
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C. albicans F92 (CI) | 300 µg∙mL−1 600 µg∙mL−1 |
90.0% inhibition 90.0% reduction |
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C. albicans F60 (CI) | 400 µg∙mL−1 600 µg∙mL−1 |
80.0% inhibition 80.0% reduction |
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C. albicans F86 (CI) | 200 µg∙mL−1 300 µg∙mL−1 |
87.0% inhibition 87.0% reduction |
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C. albicans F91 (CI) | 300 µg∙mL−1 400 µg∙mL−1 |
83.0% inhibition 83.0% reduction |
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C. albicans F69 (CI) | 200 µg∙mL−1 300 µg∙mL−1 |
91.0% inhibition 80.0% reduction |
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C. albicans F1 (CI) | 87.0% inhibition 79.0% reduction |
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C. albicans F34 (CI) | 86.0% inhibition 91.0% reduction |
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C. albicans F19 (CI) | 90.0% inhibition 85.0% reduction |
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C. albicans F78 (CI) | 400 µg∙mL−1 600 µg∙mL−1 |
84.0% inhibition 84.0% reduction |
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Schinus terebinthifolia Raddi. |
Methanol extract (leaves) | Phenolic compounds, anthraquinones, terpenoids, alkaloids | C. albicans ATCC 10231 | - | 47.0% inhibition | 0.007 mg∙mL−1 | [109] | |
Solidago virgaurea subsp. alpestris Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd. | Aqueous extract (aerial plant parts) | Saponins | C. albicans ATCC 10231 | NA (IZD) | 95.9% inhibition 92.4% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL−1 0.750 mg∙mL−1 |
[98] | |
C. albicans IM001 (CI) | 96.0% inhibition 82.2% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL−1 0.750 mg∙mL−1 |
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C. albicans IM003 (CI) | 99.5% inhibition 76.3% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL−1 0.750 mg∙mL−1 |
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C. albicans IM007 (CI) | 95.1% inhibition 91.9% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL−1 0.750 mg∙mL−1 |
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Solidago virgaurea L. subsp. virgaurea. | Aqueous extract (aerial plant parts) | Saponins | C. albicans ATCC 10231 | NA (IZD) | 98.4% inhibition 77.9% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL−1 0.750 mg∙mL−1 |
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C. albicans IM001 (CI) | 99.2% inhibition 91.1% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL−1 0.750 mg∙mL−1 |
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C. albicans IM003 (CI) | 97.3% inhibition 79.2% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL−1 0.750 mg∙mL−1 |
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C. albicans IM007 (CI) | 96.5% inhibition 90.9% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL−1 0.750 mg∙mL−1 |
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Terminalia catappa L. |
Ethanol extract (leaves) | Caffeic acid, quercitrin, kaempferol, gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, isoquercitrin [124] | C. albicans ATCC 90028 | MIC MFC |
6.25 mg∙mL−1 12.5 mg∙mL−1 |
>98.0% reduction | 62.5 mg∙mL−1 | [125] |
n-butanol fraction from ethanol extract (leaves) | C. albicans ATCC 90028 | MIC MFC |
250 μg∙mL−1 | >99.5% reduction | 2.50 mg∙mL−1 | [126] | ||
C. glabrata ATCC 2001 | MIC MFC |
250 μg∙mL−1 | >99.0% reduction | 2.50 mg∙mL−1 | ||||
Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague | Aromatic water (aerial plant parts) | Thymol, carvacrol, carvotanacetone | C. albicans CBS1905 | - | - | 95.2% inhibition | 0.5% (v/v) | [127] |
Zataria multiflora Boiss. | Aqueous extract (whole plant) | Thymol, hydroxyl benzoic acid, and cymene [128] | C. albicans PTCC-5027 | MIC | 1.50 mg∙mL−1 | 87% reduction | 25 mg∙mL−1 | [129] |
Ethanolic extract (whole plant) | MIC | 0.84 mg∙mL−1 | 97% reduction |
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/antibiotics10091142