Betaine is a non-essential nutrient which performs several important physiological functions in organisms. Abundant data exist to suggest that betaine has a potential for prevention of chronic diseases and that its dietary intake may contribute to overall health enhancement.
Cereals and Pseudocereals |
Betaine |
References |
---|---|---|
(µg/g Dry Weight) |
||
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) |
||
raw grain |
1150–1320 |
[10] |
490–574 |
[11] |
|
bran |
5047–5383 |
[11] |
2717 |
[12] |
|
2300–7200 |
[3] |
|
aleurone |
4538–6242 |
[13] |
germ |
3414 |
[13] |
wholegrain flour |
792 |
[13] |
730 * |
[14] |
|
604 |
[15] |
|
540 |
[11] |
|
refined flour |
718 * |
[16] |
700 * |
[14] |
|
415–593 |
||
398 |
[13] |
|
180 * |
[4] |
|
141.2 |
[15] |
|
flour (not specified by origin) |
270–1110 |
[2] |
Wheat Emmer (T. dicoccum) |
||
raw grain |
830–940 |
[10] |
refined flour |
195 * |
[4] |
Wheat Einkorn (T. monococcum) |
||
refined flour |
367.3 * |
[4] |
Durum wheat (T. durum) |
||
semolina |
1227 |
[11] |
483 |
[12] |
|
683 |
[13] |
|
refined flour |
253–303 |
[11] |
310 |
[12] |
|
wholegrain flour |
713 |
[13] |
245 * |
[4] |
|
Spelt wheat (T. aestivum ssp. spelta) |
||
raw grain |
973–2723 |
[11] |
565–714 |
[12] |
|
wholegrain flour |
1296–1442 |
[11] |
1370–1430 |
[10] |
|
refined flour |
978 |
[13] |
522–593 |
[11] |
|
410 |
[12] |
|
Kamut wheat, Khorasan (T. turgidum ssp. turanicum) |
||
raw grains |
1100 |
[14] |
Triticale (xTriticosecale) |
||
raw grain |
986–1030 |
[11] |
Rye |
||
raw grain |
2213 |
[11] |
1530–1760 |
[10] |
|
444 |
[12] |
|
bran |
1651 |
[15] |
refined flour |
310 * |
[4] |
wholegrain flour |
1500 * |
[14] |
1182 |
[11] |
|
986 |
[12] |
|
Barley |
||
raw grain |
460 |
[10] |
raw grain from naked var. |
980 |
[10] |
wholegrain flour |
776–1023 |
[11] |
779 |
[12] |
|
refined flour |
250 * |
[4] |
flour from naked var |
424 |
[12] |
574 |
[11] |
|
pearled grain |
274 |
[12] |
Oats |
||
raw grain |
280 |
[10] |
388 |
[12] |
|
raw grain from naked var. |
440 |
[10] |
wholegrain flour |
310 * |
[14] |
flour |
404–688 |
[11] |
53 * |
[4] |
|
bran |
200 * |
[14] |
190 |
[13] |
|
Maize |
||
raw grain |
107–304 |
[11] |
175 |
[12] |
|
wholegrain meal |
120 * |
[14] |
degermed meal |
4 * |
[14] |
semolina |
3–22 |
[13] |
refined corn grits |
37 |
[13] |
flour, enriched |
20 * |
[14] |
refined flour |
2.1 * |
[4] |
bran |
184 |
[12] |
104 |
[11] |
|
46 * |
[14] |
|
flakes |
103–120 |
[11] |
7–9 |
[13] |
|
n.d. |
[12] |
|
starch |
n.d. |
[12] |
popped |
19 |
[13] |
n.d. |
[12] |
|
Rice |
||
grain |
1–5 |
[13] |
n.d. |
[12] |
|
refined flour |
8.4 * |
[4] |
expanded |
n.d. |
[12] |
starch |
n.d. |
[12] |
Amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus) |
||
raw grain |
7420 |
[11] |
680 * |
[14] |
|
646 |
[13] |
|
expanded grain |
669 |
[11] |
607 |
[12] |
|
flour |
895–1225 |
[11] |
871 |
[12] |
|
Proso millet |
||
sample type not specified |
95–112 |
[13] |
dehulled grain |
281 |
[11] |
refined flour |
1320 * |
[4] |
Buckwheat |
||
wholegrain flour |
108 |
[11] |
7–20 |
[13] |
|
refined flour |
n.d. |
[12] |
groats, roasted |
10 * |
[4] |
26 * |
[14] |
|
Sorghum |
||
refined flour |
425 * |
[4] |
Quinoa |
||
grains |
6300 * |
[14] |
3042–4428 |
[13] |
|
610.8 * |
[4] |
n.d. not detected; * result expressed on wet weight.
Product |
Betaine Content |
References |
---|---|---|
(µg/g Dry Weight) |
||
Bread |
||
rye bread |
855–1377 |
[13] |
wholegrain spelt |
913 |
[13] |
wholemeal |
670–790 |
[3] |
wholegrain |
499–781 |
[13] |
560–620 |
[3] |
|
multigrain |
247–678 |
[13] |
white (refined) |
360–520 |
[3] |
174–287 |
[13] |
|
various (white, sourdough) |
310–590 * |
[14] |
380 * |
[14] |
|
579 |
[15] |
|
wheat tortilla |
311 |
[13] |
Pasta |
||
wholegrain wheat pasta |
710–1286 |
[13] |
375 |
[15] |
|
pasta, not specified |
480–1350 |
[2] |
refined wheat pasta |
628–706 |
[13] |
refined wheat (T. aestivum) pasta, uncooked |
253 |
[12] |
durum wheat pasta, uncooked |
188 |
[12] |
one–egg spelt pasta |
243–516 |
[13] |
barley pasta |
211 |
[13] |
noodles with egg, enriched, uncooked |
1300 * |
[14] |
noodles with egg, enriched, cooked |
190 * |
[14] |
refined couscous |
691 |
[13] |
bulghur |
1311 |
[13] |
cooked bulghur |
830 * |
[14] |
Breakfast cereals |
||
ready-to-eat wheat germ, toasted, plain |
4100 * |
[14] |
ready-to-eat wheat bran, toasted |
3200 * |
[14] |
wholegrain rye flakes |
1640 |
[13] |
wholegrain wheat-based cereals |
732–915 |
[13] |
wholegrain oat and wheat-based muesli |
310 |
[13] |
wholegrain oat-based muesli |
117–226 |
[13] |
breakfast cereals, not specified |
180–300 |
[12] |
muesli bar |
171 |
[13] |
wholegrain porridge oats |
128–167 |
[13] |
extruded whole grain oat cereals |
73–91 |
[13] |
cereal bar |
74–75 |
[13] |
various ready-to-eat cereals |
7–3600 * |
[14] |
Snacks, cookies, crackers, crispbread, cakes, pastry |
||
wholegrain rye crispbread |
1428–1527 |
[13] |
frozen, read-to-eat pancakes |
690–720 * |
[14] |
wholegrain wheat crackers |
293–649 |
[13] |
crackers, classic, saltines, cheese |
340–580 * |
[14] |
wholegrain wheat rusks |
556–564 |
[13] |
wholegrain wheat muffin |
437–501 |
[13] |
various commercial cakes |
190–480 * |
[14] |
wholegrain wheat biscuit |
425 |
[12] |
Graham cookies |
390 * |
[14] |
doughnuts |
270–380 * |
[14] |
English muffins |
220–360 * |
[14] |
extruded spelt |
308 |
[12] |
refined wheat crackers |
258–332 |
[13] |
digestive biscuit |
271–309 |
[13] |
apple pie, commercial |
160 * |
[14] |
biscuit |
4–144 |
[13] |
Danish pastry, fruit enriched |
140 * |
[14] |
plain Danish pastry |
81 * |
[14] |
* Result expressed on wet weight.
Product |
Betaine Content (µg/g Dry Weight) |
References |
---|---|---|
Bread and biscuits |
||
gluten-free crispbread |
9–107 |
[13] |
savory biscuits |
n.d.–104 |
[11] |
wholegrain gluten-free bread |
12–68 |
[13] |
oatmeal biscuits |
3 |
[13] |
gluten-free flour enriched with fibers |
1 |
[13] |
sweet biscuits |
n.d. |
[12] |
flour mixture for gluten-free bread |
n.d. |
[12] |
gluten-free cookies with almonds, crackers, salty sticks |
n.d. |
[12] |
expanded maize |
n.d. |
[12] |
Pasta |
||
buckwheat pasta, uncooked |
390 |
[11] |
382 |
[13] |
|
175 |
[12] |
|
maize-based pasta |
2–20 |
[13] |
maize and rice-based pasta, uncooked |
n.d. |
[12] |
rice-based pasta, uncooked |
n.d. |
[12] |
Breakfast cereals and related products |
||
soy bran |
182 |
[12] |
unseasoned popcorn |
19 |
[13] |
cornflakes |
14 |
[13] |
buckwheat flakes |
10 |
[13] |
rice-based breakfast cereals |
4–5 |
[13] |
expanded rice |
n.d. |
[12] |
n.d. not detected.
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/foods7040049