Mango (Mangifera indica L.), known as the king of fruits, has an attractive taste and fragrance and high nutritional value. Mango is commercially important in India, where ~55% of the global crop is produced. The fruit has three main parts: pulp, peel, and kernel. The pulp is the most-consumed part, while the peel and kernel are usually discarded. Mango pulp is a source of a variety of reducing sugars, amino acids, aromatic compounds, and functional compounds, such as pectin, vitamins, anthocyanins, and polyphenols.
Mango is economically important, being the third-largest agricultural product in India. The cultivation of mango in India covers around 2.26 million acres, which is 40% of the total area used for Indian fruit production (Figure 1b). Over 30 varieties of mangoes are commercially available in India. The huge diversity in Indian mango cultivation is due to the large number of cultivars (the country is home to approximately 1000 varieties, only a few of which are commercially cultivated) and wild varieties. Apart from Mangifera indica, many other species such as M. khasiana, M. andamanica, M. camptosperma and M. sylvatica have been reported in India [4].
Fruit plays an important role in the world’s economy and food security from various perspectives [5]. However, economic success or failure of commercial mango production primarily relies on local weather and climate changes. A recent study indicated that the frequency and severity of extreme weather events have affected mango production in Central Queensland, Australia [6]. Although mango trees are adapted to dry weather, weather factors like floods, rainfall, humidity, and temperature can influence tree growth, flowering, fruit growth, the color and size of fruit, and farmer income [6][7][8]. Temperature has a dominant influence on the appearance, quality, and taste of mango fruit. The increasing temperatures are offering opportunities for mango production in new areas. The mangoes grown in the northern states of India and Thailand require longer to mature than those in the central and southern states [7]. High temperature has positive effects on mango fruit growth and maturation. The estimated duration of mango fruit development decreased by 12–16 days in Australia due to the rise in winter temperature (1.5 °C) over the last 45 years [9]. In addition, high-temperature-induced stress can trigge
So far, about 500 research articles have been published on the presence, structure, chemical synthesis, and therapeutic properties of mangiferin. The majority of these studies are from India and Bangladesh. Countries like Brazil, Nigeria, and Iran also contributed significantly to reporting the therapeutic effects of mango contents. Mangiferin has been shown to restore the learning and memory impairments and to decrease hippocampal injury in a mouse model [19]. A recent study demonstrated that mangiferin potently inhibits the progression of human epithelial ovarian cancer [13]. A human study revealed that supplementation with mangiferin combined with luteolin enhances the exercise spring performance and brain oxygenation during sprint exercise in physically active men [20]. Mango intake (200–400 g of pulp for 8 weeks) has been shown to decrease inflammatory biomarkers and improve the intestinal microbiota in patients with inflammatory bowel disease [21]. Another report documented that the intake of 85 g of mangos (16 weeks) reduced facial wrinkles in fair-skinned postmenopausal women [22]. In addition to these, other health-benefiting properties of the mango pulp, peel, and kernel are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Biological activities of phytochemicals isolated from M. indica.
Biochemical Property and Name of Part Used | Name of the Compound | Reference |
---|---|---|
1. Antioxidant Activity | ||
Peel | 3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid (protocatechuic acid) | [23] |
Fruit pulp | Kaempferol | [24][25] |
Fruit pulp | Linalool | [26] |
Fruit pulp | Mangiferin | [27] |
Fruit pulp | Quercetin | [28][29][30] |
Fruit pulp | β-Carotene | [31] |
Peel | β-Carotene | [32] |
2. Anti-Inflammatory Activity | ||
Peel | 5-(11Z-Heptadecenyl)-resorcinol and | [33] |
5-(8,Z,11,Z-Heptadecadienyl)-resorcinol | ||
Fruit pulp | Kaempferol | [34][24][25] |
Fruit pulp | Mangiferin | [27][35][36] |
Fruit pulp | Shikimic acid | [37] |
3. Antimicrobial Activity | ||
Fruit pulp | Kaempferol | [34][24][25] |
Fruit pulp | Mangiferin | [27][35][36] |
Fruit pulp | Quercetin | [28][29][30] |
Peel | 3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid | [23] |
(protocatechuic acid) | ||
4. Anti-Diabetic and Anti-Obesity Activity | ||
Fruit pulp | Kaempferol | [34][24][25] |
Peel | 3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid (protocatechuic acid) |
[23] |
Fruit pulp | Mangiferin | [27][35][36] |
Fruit pulp | β-Carotene | [31] |
Fruit pulp | Quercetin | [28][29][30] |
5. Cytotoxic and Apoptotic Activity | ||
Fruit pulp | Kaempferol | [34][24][25] |
Fruit pulp | Linalool | [26] |
Fruit pulp | Mangiferin | [27][35][36] |
Fruit pulp | Quercetin | [28][29][30] |
Fruit pulp | β-Carotene | [31] |
Peel | 3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid | [23] |
(protocatechuic acid) | ||
Seed | Mangiferin | [14] |
Seed | Gallic acid | [38] |
6. Neuroprotective Activity | ||
Fruit pulp | Linalool | [39] |
Fruit pulp | Mangiferin | [27][35][36] |
7. Cardio-Protective | ||
Fruit pulp | Mangiferin | [27][35][36] |
8. Anticoagulant/Antithrombotic | ||
Fruit pulp | Shikimic acid | [40] |
9. Blood-Pressure-Lowering Activity | ||
Fruit pulp | Quercetin | [28][29][30] |
10. Gastro-Protective | ||
Seed | Mangiferin | [38] |