Tomatoes are an important component of horticulture and a major pillar of sustainable development, with significant contribution to household and national food and nutritional security [42,67]. They are a cash crop grown for home consumption in the backyards of the majority homesteads across SSA and are an important source of vitamins [68]. Tomato production also significantly contributes to economic development ascribed to its high economic returns and ability to create employment (~60% of total labour force) and along the value chain [69,70]. About 170 million tonnes of tomatoes are produced worldwide [16,71]. Of this figure, Africa accounts for ~37.8 million tonnes annually. However, this figure is threatened by increased T. absoluta damage [29], with downstream consequences on African socio-economic value chains and household livelihoods [72].

Tuta absoluta larvae attack almost all aerial parts of tomato plants, resulting in ~80–100% yield losses if left uncontrolled [73]. Larval feeding also reduces fruit quality through creating pin holes prone to secondary attack by pathogens, rendering them unmarketable [74]. Increased cost of production has been reportedly experienced by small- and large-scale farmers in Africa due to increased costs for pesticides [62]. For example, recent evidence suggests decreased tomato yields and increased production costs [72]. Highest losses are mostly experienced during early invasion owing to inadequate mitigation measures related to lack of preparedness [18]. Nigeria experienced up to 80% losses in tomato produce in 2016 due to unfamiliarity with the pest and management strategies [70]. This reduced supply and catapulted an estimated 10-fold increase in tomato prices due to the laws of demand and supply [75]. Similarly, following T. absoluta invasion in South Africa (2016), pest-free countries banned importation of tomato and other Solanaceae crops from that country [13], resulting in significant economic losses. Similar losses have also been reported in South-western Angola [76]. Thus, T. absoluta pest pressure has negatively affected agricultural enterprises in Africa through direct losses (crop damage) and indirect losses through increased costs in pest management [29]. Tuta absoluta remains a pest of quarantine importance in countries under the Inter-African Phytosanitary Council (IAPSC) and has been reported on the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization’s (EPPO’s) A2 list as a regulated insect pest [77].

Long-distance transmission and short-distance dispersal are the key drivers of T. absoluta invasion [78]. International agricultural trade is a key long-distance transmission mode that may have contributed to a larger extent in the introduction of T. absoluta into Africa, e.g., importation of fruits (e.g., tomatoes and egg plants) from pest-infested areas [29,79]. Other possible pathways for long-distance dissemination include production facilities and packaging materials (e.g., boxes, crates and pallets) from infested countries [43,80]. Hence, production facilities repack and distribute infested fruits, resulting in long-distance dissemination, reviewed in [81]. In addition, propagule material (e.g., seedlings), farm equipment and transportation vehicles from pest-infested areas are also possible pathways for long-distance transmission [78,79,82]. From the foregoing, the rapid spread across Africa may have been exacerbated by porous port of entries, weak phytosanitary regulations and ineffective early surveillance in the region [18]. Furthermore, natural factors (e.g., wind and water), larval crawling and adult flight are possible key short-distance dispersal pathways [78]. To date, T. absoluta has been reported in 41 of the 54 African countries (see [29]). The pest has not yet been officially reported in a few central and south-western African countries [13,16]. However, cognisant of its widespread presence in Africa, this absence may be a consequence of lack of surveillance and pest detection mechanisms.