Pistacia lentiscus L. (PlL) is a wild-growing shrub rich in terpenoids and polyphenols, the oil and extracts of which have been widely used against inflammation and infections, and as wound healing agents.
Group | Species |
---|---|
Lenticella | Pistacia mexicana HBK |
Pistacia texana Swingle | |
Eu lentiscus | Pistacia lentiscus L. (mastic tree) |
Pistacia saporte Burbar | |
Pistacia weinmannifolia Poisson | |
Butmela | Pistacia atlantica Desf. |
Eu terebintus | Pistacia chinensis Bge. |
Pistacia khinjuk Stocks | |
Pistacia palaestina Bois. | |
Pistacia terebinthus L. | |
Pistacia vera L. |
Geographical Area | Ailment/Uses | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Sardinia, Italy | Oral cavity inflammation and infection, tooth ache, osteoarthritis, bronchitis, cough sedative, antipyretic, allergies, asthma, ulcerations, gastrointestinal disorders, wound healing and haemostatic | [19][25][26][27][28][29][30][31] |
Southern regions of Italy (Calabria and Campania) | Inflammation of the mouth, tooth ache, mycosis, herpes and refreshing feet | [27][32] |
Central regions of Italy (Abruzzi, Marche and Tuscany), Spain | Hypertension and cardiac diseases | [27][33] |
Spain | Analgesic, teeth strengthening, hypertension and cardiac diseases | [33][34] |
Tunisia | Antipyretic, astringent, eczema, paralysis, antimicrobial, throat infections, asthma, hypertension, cardiac diseases, paralysis, diuretic properties, renal stones, jaundice, antiatherogenic effect, antihepatotoxic and gastrointestinal diseases | [27][35] |
Algeria | Stomach ache, dyspepsia, peptic ulcer, diarrhea and rheumatism | [36] |
Morocco and North Africa |
Hypertension, cardiac diseases and diabetes | [37] |
Libya | Immuno-stimulant and antimicrobial | [23] |
Jordan | Ameliorate jaundice | [38][39] |
Israel | Heartburn and soothes stomach | [40] |
Iran | Gum tissue strengthened, breath deodorizer, brain and liver tonic and gastrointestinal ailments | [41][42] |
Turkey | Throat infections, asthma, eczema, stomach ache, renal stones, paralysis, diarrhea, jaundice, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antipyretic, stimulant and astringent | [43] |
Plant Material | Origin | Main Components of Essential Oils or Plant Extracts | Test Assays | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Essential oils from | ||||
Leaves | Spain | β-myrcene (19%), α-terpineol + terpinen-4-ol (15%), α-pinene (11%) | GC-MS | [48] |
Unripe fruit | β-myrcene (54%), α-pinene (22%), | GC-MS | ||
Ripe fruit | β-myrcene (19%), α-pinene (11%), δ-3-carene | GC-MS | ||
Leaves | Egypt | δ-3-carene (65%), sesquiterpene alcohols (4%) | GC-MS | [49] |
Leaves | Greece | Myrcene (20.6%), germacrene D (13.3%), E-caryophyllene (8.3%), α-cadinol (7.3%), t5-cadinene (7.0%) | GC-MS | [50] |
Leaves | Turkey | Terpinen-4-ol (29.9%), α-terpineol, (11.6%), limonene (10.6%), (Z)-3-Hex-1-enyl benzoate (6.7%), α-pinene (4.2%), β-caryophyllene (3.2%) | GC-MS | [51] |
Leaves | Morocco | Myrcene (39.2%), limonene (10.3%), β-gurjunene (7.8), germacrene (4.3%), α-pinene (2.9%), muurolene (2.9%) | GC-FID; GC-MS | [52] |
Leaves | Tunisia | α-pinene (16.8%), 4-terpinenol (11.9%), β-phellandrene (8.9%), sabinene (5.7%9, γ-terpinene (5.5%) and β-pinene (4.3%) | GC–MS | [53] |
Aerial parts | Algeria (Algiers) | Longifolene (12.8%), γ-cadinene (6.2%), trans-β-terpineol (5%), α-acorneol (4.6%), γ-muurolene (4.2%), β-pinene (3.7%) | GC, GC-MS | [54] |
Algeria (Tizi-Ouzou) |
Longifolene (16.4%), trans-β-terpineol (15.6%), terpinen-4-ol (7%), γ-muurolene (5.7%), β-pinene (3.3%), α-pinene (2.8%) | GC, GC-MS | ||
Algeria (Oran) | α-pinene (19%), trans-β-terpineol (13.1%), sabinene (12.6%), β-pinene, (6.5%), (E)-β-ocimene (5.5%), longifolene (5.2%) | GC, GC-MS | ||
Leaves | Sardinia (Italy) | α-pinene (14.8–22.6%), terpinen-4-ol (14.2–28.3%), β-myrcene (1.0–18.3%), p-cymene (14.8–16.2%), sabinene (2.5–8.1%), limonene (0.9–3.8%) | GC-MS | [19] |
Leaves | Greece | α-pinene (9.4–24.9%), terpinen-4-ol (6.8–10.6%), p-cymene (0.5–7.5%), limonene (9.0–17.8%), γ-terpinene (3.1–3.6%) | GC-MS | [55] |
Leaves | Sardinia (Italy) | α-pinene, α-thujene, camphene, sabinene, β-pinene, myrcene, α-phellandrene, α-terpinene, para-cymene, β-phellandrene, trans-ocemene, γ-terpene, terpinolene, 2-nonanone, linalool, isopentyl isovalerate, terpin-4-ol, α-terpiniol and others. | GC-MS | [29] |
Leaves | Algeria | β-caryophyllene (54–198 μg g−1 dw), δ-cadinene (15–186 μg g−1 dw), cubebol (15–117 μg g−1 dw), β-bisabolene (22.1- 105 μg g−1 dw), α-pinene (1.9–105 μg g−1 dw), γ-muurolene (29.7–67.3 μg g−1 dw) | GC-MS | [56] |
Leaves | Sardinia (Italy) | Germacrene D (19.9%), β-caryophyllene (6.6%), α-pinene (6.3%), myrcene (3.9%), β-phellandrene (3.7%), α-humulene (2.4%) | GC-MS | [12] |
Leaves | Eastern Morocco | Taforalt and Saidia areas: limonene, α-pinene, α-terpineol and β-caryophyllene;Laayoune and Jerada areas: myrcene and β-caryophyllene. |
GC-MS | [57] |
Fresh leaves | Greece | δ-germacrene (24.78%), myrcene (19.5%), α-cadinol (9.53%), γ-cadinene (5.59%), trans-caryophyllene (5.03%), limonene (4.84%) | GC-MS | [58] |
Dried leaves | δ-cadinene (17.04%), α-amorphene (10.32%), δ-germacrene (9.01%), trans-caryophyllene (6.32%), α-cubebene (5.55%), naphthalene (4.13%) | GC-MS | ||
Ripe fruits | Tunisia | Phenolic composition of seed oil (concentrations not shown) | GC-MS | [59] |
Leaves | Tunisia | Germacrene D (11.9%), pinene (9.9%), limonene (8.5%), δ-cadinene (8.5%), β-caryophyllene (8.2%), terpinen 4-ol (5.1%) | GC-FID, GC-MS | [60] |
Fruits | Tunisia | α-pinene (13.35%), α-phellandrene (10.12%), β-phellandrene (10.45%), sabinene (7.01%), germacrene-D (6.86%), β-caryophyllene (4.58%) | GC-MS | [61] |
Leaves | Tuscany (Italy) | α-pinene (24.6–9.2%), 1–4 terpineol (14.9–7.1%), β-phellandrene (11.4–4.7%), β-pinene (8.6–1.2%), β-mircene (9.2–0.7%), α-terpineol (8.4–4.9%) | GC-MS | [62] |
Leaves and twigs | Sardinia (Italy) | Terpinen-4-ol (25.2%), α-phellandrene (11.9%), β-phellandrene (10.2%), γ-terpinene (10.1%), α-pinene (7.6%) | GC-FID, GC-MS | [63] |
Fruits | Tunisia | 4-{3-[(2hydroxybenzoyl) amino] anilino}4-oxobut-2-enoic acid (28.96%), β-myrcene (11.47%), 3-pentadecylphenol (8.51%), p-tolyl ester (8.36%), amino formic acid (7.51%) | GC–MS | [64] |
Male flowers | Tunisia | β-caryophyllene (12.8%), germacrene-D (9.6%), elemol (8.9%), α-terpineol (7.8%), γ-cadinene (7.1%), bornyl acetate (6.2%) | GC-MS | [65] |
Female flowers | α-limonene (28.7%), germacrene-D (23.7%), elemol (6.7%), β-caryophyllene (6.6%), α-pinene (6.0%), bornyl acetate (3.7%) | GC-MS | ||
Leaves of male plants at flowering | α-limonene (18.8%), germacrene-D (13.1%), β-caryophyllene (8.8%), δ-cadinene (8.7%), γ-cadinene (6.2%), α-pinene (4.8%) | GC-MS | ||
Leaves of female plants at flowering | Germacrene-D (20.7%), δ-cadinene (15.6%), β-caryophyllene (12.1%), γ-cadinene (6.6%), δ-cadinol (6.1%), α-limonene (5%) | GC-MS | ||
Ripe fruits | β-myrcene (75.6%), α-pinene (12.6%), α-limonene (3.2%), α-terpineol (1.4%), camphene (0.8%) | GC-MS | ||
Leaves | Morocco | Myrcene (33.5%), α-pinene (19.2%), limonene (6.6%), α-phellandrene (4.6%), γ-terpineol (3.7%), α-terpineol (3.6%) | GC-MS | B [66] |
Leaves | Sardinia (Italy) | α-pinene (16.9%), terpinen-4-ol (16.5%), sabinene (7.8%), α-phellandrene (7.4%), γ-terpinene (6.3%), β-pinene (4.3%) | GC-MS | [67] |
Plant extracts/solvent used | ||||
Leaves/ethyl acetate and methanol | Italy | 3,5-O-digalloyl quinic acid (26.8 ± 0.15 mg/g DW), 3,4,5-O-trigalloyl quinic acid (10.3 ± 2.45 mg/g DW), 5-O- galloyl quinic acid (9.6 ± 2.45 mg/g DW), myricetin 3-O-rhamnoside (6.8 ± 1.04 mg/g DW), myricetin 3-O-rutinoside (4.5 ± 0.18 mg/g DW), myricetin glucuronide (3.9 ± 0.65 mg/g DW) | HPLC-DAD, HPLC-MS, NMR | [68] |
Berries/methanol | Apulia (Italy) | Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside (71%), delphinidin 3-O-glucoside, cyanidin 3- O arabinoside (28–31%) | HPLC-DAD-MS | [69] |
Fruits during maturation/petroleum ether | Tunisia | Oils, fatty acids and sterols | GC-MS | [35] |
Leaves/methanol | Algeria | 46 compounds (most abundant flavonoids, phenolic acids and their derivatives) | HPLC-ESI-QTOF | [70] |
Leaves/methanol | Italy | 46 secondary metabolites | LC-ESI-MS/MS | [71] |
Fruits/methanol-water | Tunisia | Total phenolic acids 436.4–2762.7 mg/kg; total flavones 75.3–1222.9 mg/kg; total flavonols 24.2–377.4 mg/kg; total secoiridoids 12.6–366.8 mg/kg; total phenols 538.0–4260.6 mg/kg | HPLC-DAD/MSD | [72] |
Leaves/ethanol | Italy | Tannin derivatives (70.5%), myricetin derivatives (22%), quercetin derivatives (7.2%) | HPLC-DAD | [73] |
Leaves/methanol | Egypt | α-pinene (38.1%), 3,5-O-digalloyl quinic acid (13.5%), D-limonene (11.9%), α-phellandrene (10.1%), β-pinene (9.5%), γ muurolene (8.0%), luteolin-3-O-rutinoside (7.8%), quercetin 3-O-di-hexose O-pentose (7.6%), 3,4,5-O-trigalloyl quinic acid (6.1%), quercetin 3-O-glucuronide (4.6%), epicatechin 3-gallate (4.5%), camphene (3.8%) | UHPLC-ESI-MS, GC-MS | [74] |
Exp. Setting | Origin Model | Plant Material | Model | Exp. Protocol | Results | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antioxidant activity | Sardinia, Italy | Leaves oil | Cells free | DPPH as Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) | Great seasonal variability inhibition | [19] |
Algeria | Leaves extract | Cells free | FRAP | ↑ High | [86] | |
H2O2 scavenging activity | ↓ Low | |||||
Algeria | Leaves extract | Cells free | Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) |
↑ High and dose dependent | [94] | |
DPPH | ↑↑ Very high | |||||
H2O2 scavenging activity | ↑↑ Very high | |||||
Linoleic acid peroxidation inhibition | ↑↑↑ Outstanding | |||||
Zakynthos (Greece) | Leaves extract | Cells free | DPPH | ↑↑ Very high | [55] | |
Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) | ↑ High | |||||
Sardinia, Italy | Leaves extract | Cells free | DPPH as Trolox equivalents | ↑↑ High | [95] | |
ABTS as Trolox equivalents | ↑↑ High | |||||
Algeria | Leaves extract | Cells free | DPPH (%) | ↑ High | [35] | |
Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) |
↑ High | |||||
β-carotene bleaching method (%) | ↑↑ Very high | |||||
Morocco | Fruits oil, leaves oil | Cells free | DPPH | Fruits oil: ↑↑ high Leaves oil: ↑ high |
[66] | |
FRAP | Fruits oil: ↑↑ high Leaves oil: ↑ high | |||||
ABTS | Fruits oil: ↑↑ high Leaves oil: ↑ high | |||||
Campania (Italy) | Leaves extract | Cell lines | Lipid peroxidation | ↑↑ Very high | [15] | |
Intracellular ROS | ↑↑Very high | |||||
Oxidized glutathione | ↑↑ Very high | |||||
Sardinia, Italy | Leaves oil | Animals | DHA | ↑↑ High protection | [12] | |
Algeria | Fruits extract, leaves extract | Cells free and cell lines | Intracellular ROS in THP-1 monocytic cells | Fruits extract: dose-dependent protection | [96] | |
ORAC as μmol Trolox Equivalents | Fruits extract: ↑ High; Leaves extract: ↑↑ Very high |
|||||
Sardinia, Italy | Leaves oil | Cells free and cell lines, human fibroblasts | H2O2 scavenging activity | ↓ Low | [67] | |
ECC | ↓ Low | |||||
Anti-inflammatory activity | Sardinia, Italy | Leaves oil | Animals | COX-2 | ↑↑ High inhibition | [12] |
Sardinia, Italy | Leaves oil | Animals | TNF-α | ↓↓ High decrease | [29] | |
IL-6 | ↓↓↓ High decrease | |||||
Algeria | Fruits extract, leaves extract | Cells free and cell lines | IL-1β inhibition by ATP stimulated THP-1 | Fruit extract: no reduction; Leaves extract: ↑↑ high |
[96] | |
IL-1β inhibition by H2O2 stimulated THP-1 | Fruit extract: ↓ low; Leaves extract: dose-dependent |
|||||
Sardinia, Italy | Leaves oil | Cells free and cell lines, Human fibroblasts | COX-1 | Inhibition | [67] | |
COX-2 | ↑ high inhibition | |||||
LOX | no inhibition |
(a) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Origin | Plant Material | Bacteria | Origin of Strain | Antimicrobial Activity | Ref. | |
Sicily (Italy) | Aerial parts ethanol extract, aerial parts water extracts | Staphylococcus aureus | ATCC 29213 | Yes | [99] | |
Escherichia coli | ATCC 35218 | Yes | ||||
Tunisia | Leaves essential oil | S. aureus | ATCC 25923 | Yes | [53] | |
Enterococcus faecalis | ATCC 29212 | Yes | ||||
Salmonella enteritidis | ATCC 13076 | Yes | ||||
Salmonella typhimurium | NRRLB 4420 | Yes | ||||
E. coli | ATCC 25922 | Yes | ||||
Pseudomonas aeruginosa | ATCC 27853 | Yes | ||||
Algeria | Leaves ethanol extract | S.aureus | ATCC 601 | Yes | [86] | |
Listeria monocytogenes | ATCC 19111 | Yes | ||||
Klebsiella pneumoniae | 5215773 | Yes | ||||
P. aeruginosa | 22212004 | Yes | ||||
S. typhi | 4404540 | Yes | ||||
Proteus mirabilis | 0536040 | Yes | ||||
E. coli | 5044172 | Yes | ||||
Enterobacter cloacae | 1305573 | Yes | ||||
444 | Yes | |||||
Eastern Morocco | Aerial parts from different areas of Morocco essential oils | S.aureus | Not given | Yes | [57] | |
Streptococcus spp. | Not given | Yes | ||||
E. coli | Not given | Yes | ||||
K. pneumoniae | Not given | Yes | ||||
Pseudomonas spp. | Not given | Yes | ||||
Salmonella spp. | Not given | Yes | ||||
Tunisia | Fruits essential oil, phenolic extract | S.aureus | Not given | Yes | [59] | |
Bacillus subtilis | Not given | Yes | ||||
L. monocytogens | Not given | Yes | ||||
E. coli | Not given | Yes | ||||
P. aeruginosa | Not given | Yes | ||||
Aeromonas hydrophila | Not given | Yes | ||||
Salmonellatyphimurium | Not given | Yes | ||||
Algeria | Aerial part methanol extract | S.aureus | Not given | Yes | [36] | |
E. coli | Not given | Yes | ||||
P. aeruginosa | Not given | Yes | ||||
Algeria | Leaves and stems methanol extract, leaves and stems aqueous extracts | S.aureus E. coli |
Not given Not given |
No No |
[44] | |
Sardinia (Italy) | Fruits essential oil | Bacillus clausii | Probiotic | No | [79] | |
Staphylococcushominis | Clinical | No | ||||
S.aureus | ATCC 6538 | No | ||||
Streptococcus pyogenes | Clinical | No | ||||
Streptococcus agalactiae | Clinical | Yes | ||||
Streptococcus salivarius | Probiotic (n = 2) |
No | ||||
Streptococcus mitis | Clinical | No | ||||
Streptococcus mutans | Collection | No | ||||
Streptococcus intermedius | Collection | Yes | ||||
Sardinia (Italy) | Fruit methanol extract, leaves methanol extract, | S. aureus | ATCC 25293 | Yes | [100] | |
Staphylococcusepidermidis | ATCC 12,228 | Yes | ||||
E. coli | ATCC 25,922 | In part | ||||
K. pneumoniae | ATCC 9591 | In part | ||||
Sardinia (Italy) | Leaves essential oil | Streptococcus gordonii | ATCC 10,558 | Yes | [67] | |
Actinomyces naeslundii | ATCC 12104 | Yes | ||||
Fusobacterium nucleatum | ATCC 25586 | Yes | ||||
Porphyromonas gingivalis | ATCC 33277 | Yes | ||||
P. gingivalis | Clinical (n = 2) | Yes | ||||
Tannerella forsythia | ATCC 43300 | Yes | ||||
T. forsythia | Clinical (n = 2) | Yes | ||||
(b) | ||||||
Origin | Plant Material | Fungi | Origin of Strain | Antifungal Activity | Ref. | |
Sicily (Italy) | Aerial parts ethanol extract, aerial parts water extracts Leaves ethyl acetate and methanol extract |
Candida albicans Candida parapsilosis Candida glabrata Cryptococcus neoformans |
Clinical (n = 18) Clinical (n = 9) Clinical (n = 11) Clinical (n = 5) |
Yes Yes Yes Yes |
[99] | |
Tuscany (Italy) | Leaves ethyl acetate and methanol extract | C.albicans | Clinical | No | [101] | |
C.glabrata | Clinical | No | ||||
C.parapsilosis | Clinical | No | ||||
C. tropicalis | Clinical | No | ||||
C. zeylanoides | Clinical | No | ||||
Algeria | Leaves ethanol extract | C.albicans | 444 | Yes | [86] | |
Tunisia | Fruits essential oil, phenolic extract | Aspergillus flavus | Not given | No | [59] | |
Aspergillus niger | Not given | No | ||||
C.albicans | Not given | In part | ||||
Sardinia (Italy) | Fruits essential oil | C. albicans | Clinical | No | [79] | |
C.glabrata | Clinical | No | ||||
C.krusei | Clinical | No | ||||
Sardinia (Italy) | Leaves essential oil | C.albicans | Laboratory | Yes | [67] | |
C.albicans | Clinical (n = 2) | Yes | ||||
C.glabrata | Laboratory | Yes | ||||
C.glabrata | Clinical (n = 2) | Yes |
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/antibiotics10040425