Moringa oleifera: History
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Subjects: Plant Sciences
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Gema Nieto

Moringa oleifera belongs to the Moringaceae family and is the best known of the native Moringa oleifera genus. For centuries, it has been used as a system of Ayurvedic and Unani medicine and has a wide range of nutritional and bioactive compounds, including proteins, essential amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, fibre, vitamins, minerals, phenolic compounds, phytosterols and others. These characteristics allow it to have pharmacological properties, including anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, antioxidant, cardioprotective, antimicrobial and hepatoprotective properties. The entire Moringa oleifera plant is edible, including its flowers, however, it is not entirely safe, because of compounds that have been found mainly in the root and bark, so the leaf was identified as the safest. Moringa oleifera is recognised as an excellent source of phytochemicals, with potential applications in functional and medicinal food preparations due to its nutritional and medicinal properties; many authors have experimented with incorporating it mainly in biscuits, cakes, brownies, meats, juices and sandwiches. The results are fascinating, as the products increase their nutritional value; however, the concentrations cannot be high, as this affects the organoleptic characteristics of the supplemented products.

  • Moringa
  • natural preservatives
  • bakery products
  • functional food

1. Introduction

Moringa oleifera is a genus of the fast-growing tropical deciduous plant of the Moringaceae family, with thick, tuberous roots, light green leaves and abundant flowering with elongated, pendulous fruits and seeds [1]. It is a native crop of northern India, although it is found in southwest Asia, southwest and northwest Africa and Madagascar. It has long been a part of traditional horticulture, used mainly for ornamental purposes in cities along the Pacific coast of Mexico [2], as well as plantations in Bolivia, Argentina and elsewhere in the world [3]. It has 13 known species, with Moringa oleifera, native to India, being one of the most studied and used for its nutritional, phytochemical and pharmacological properties. According to ayurvedic medicine (traditional and alternative medicine of India) [4], it is attributed properties for the treatment of some diseases, such as asthma, epilepsy, eye and skin diseases, fever and haemorrhoids [5][6][7]. In fact, it is a medicinal plant traditionally known in the approach to malnutrition and other diseases [8].

It can withstand long periods of drought, growing well in arid and semi-arid areas. According to researchers, it tolerates soils with a pH between 4.5 and 8, although neutral or slightly acidic pH is more favourable [9]; it is a very adaptable species, lives about 20 years and reaches a height of 5 to 10 m in a short period of time, reaching 4 m in 6 months [10]. It is considered a very versatile plant due to its great capacity to provide edible food, which includes different vegetative structures, such as leaves, pod shells, stem, flowers, fruits and seeds. These structures contain bioactive compounds and nutrients (Figure 1), such as phenolic compounds, fatty acids, carbohydrates, fibre, minerals, vitamins and functional peptides with a wide potential to be used in food.

Plants 10 00318 g001 550

Figure 1. Composition in bioactive compounds of vegetative structures of Moringa oleifera plant.

However, not all of the plant is probably safe, as toxic compounds have been found [11]. On the other hand, its uses are varied, as the seed is used to purify water and the oil from the seeds can be used as a fertiliser [6]. Considering that previous studies have shown that bioactive compounds from herbs and plants could be used for functional food product innovation [11][12][13][14]. Moringa oleifera plants could be used for functional food and other industrial food applications [15].

2. Ethnopharmacological Uses of Moringa oleifera

Moringa oleifera has been used as a medicine in India since the 18th century BC. Traditional healers used different parts of the plant as traditional medicines. The medicinal uses are numerous and have long been recognised as an Ayurvedic and Unani system of medicine. Almost all parts of the plant: root, bark, gum, leaf, fruit (pods), flowers, seeds and seed oil, have been used to treat various diseases, like skin infections, swelling, anaemia, asthma, bronchitis, diarrhoea, headache, joint pain, rheumatism, gout, diarrhoea, heart problems, fevers, digestive disorders, wounds, diabetes, conjunctivitis, haemorrhoids, goitre, earache, measles and smallpox in the indigenous system of medicine [5][16].

3. Composition of Moringa oleifera

The composition of Moringa oleifera varies depending on climatic variations, crop management, whether it is cultivated or wild, the state of maturity of the plant at the time of harvesting, the type of post-harvest processing and depends on the growing area, i.e., the land where it is grown [17].

3.1. Primary Metabolites

Moringa oleifera leaf is a rich source of minerals, such as calcium, potassium, zinc, magnesium, iron, phosphorus and copper [18], where it is represented in Table 1. One of the characteristics of the leaf is its high protein content, due to the essential amino acids, which constitute about 30% of its weight, being comparable to milk powder which contains 35%, and is available all year round, as the protein and essential amino acid content is present in the leaves, unlike other plants which contain them in the seeds [2][19][20], reporting a protein content of 29.4 g protein/100 g dry weight in the leaves. Thus, Moringa oleifera can be considered a new source of protein to be included in food, like chia seed, with a protein content of 24 g protein/100 g dry weight [21]. Regarding carbohydrates, its level is lower (8.1%) [22] compared to the other parts of the plant, as can be seen in Table 2. In addition, fibres were also found, with a value ranging between 18.1 and 21.1 g/100 g dry weight of the leaves [23].

Table 1. The nutritional composition of the leaf of Moringa oleifera.

Minerals (mg)

Fatty Acids %

AA Essentials

(mg)

Vitamin

Bioactive Molecules (mg)

P 112.1

C16:0 23.3

His 700–1357

Vitamin A 11,300–23,000 UI

β-carotene 6.6–17.6 mg

Mg 10.6

C16:1 0.4

Thr 790–2197

Vitamin C 18.7–140 mg

α-Tocopherol 74.5–122.1

Na 224.1

C18:0 4.1

Tyr 480–1880

Riboflavin 22.6 mg

Thiamine 2.85 mg

K 2071.9

C18:1 6.27

Val 1130–2758

Niacin 8.86 mg

Polypherols 2.10 –12.2 mgGAE/mg

Mn 8.37

C18:2 6.11

Met + Cys 140–835

  

Flavonoids 5.1–12.2 mg/g

Cu 0.95

C18:3 56.9

Leu 1750–4289

  

Myricetin 5.8 mg/g

S 137

C20:0 0.21

Phe 890–2714

  

Quercetin 0.21–7.6 mg/g

Cr < 0.5

C22:0 0.70

Lys 1325–1530

  

Kaempferol 4.6 mg/g

Mb 0.75

      

Gallic Acid 1.03–1.34 mg

Ni < 0.5

      

Chlorogenic Acid 1.8–6.97 mg/g

Se 2.71

      

Glucosinalates 21.84–59.50 mg/g
       

Tannins 132–1200 mg
       

Oxalates 430–1600 mg
       

Phytates 250–2100 mg

Source José J., García L. [24]; Castro-López et al. [25]; Rodríguez-Pérez et al. [26].

Table 2. Nutritional composition of Moringa oleifera edible parts.

Component/100 g Dry Weight

Leaves

Immature Fruit Pericarp

Seeds

Macronutrients

Energy (kcal)

205–295.6

178.2

564.5

Protein (%)

19–27.1

17.2–19.3

32.9–38.3

Lipids (%)

4.7–5

0.4–1.3

30.8–44.8

Fiber (%)

7.9–19.2

22.6–46.8

4.9–15.9

Carbohydrates (%)

27–51.7

21–51

14.4–16

Minerals

Calcium (mg)

1.875–2.076

12.5–29

76.9

Iron (mg)

27.8–38

2.3–5.3

13.7

Fatty Acids

C18:1 Olecic Acid

6.27

18

67.9–78

Others:

Ascorbic Acid (vit c) (mg)

18.7–140

871

84.5

Chlorophyll (mg)

126.8

-

-

Source José J., García L. [24]; Castro-López et al. [25]; Rodríguez-Pérez et al. [26].

The leaves are noted for high levels of β-carotene and provide more vitamin A than carrots and pumpkin [8], however it is not clear whether this vitamin is retained even after drying and grinding the plant. Even so, studies have shown that their consumption is sufficient to counteract the effects of this vitamin deficiency [2]. They are also a good source of B vitamins (quoted from the book tree miracle), among which thiamine, riboflavin and niacin have been found, with a concentration between 0.06 and 0.6 mg/100 g, 0.05 and 0.17 mg/100 g and 0.8 and 0.82 mg/100 g for thiamine, riboflavin and niacin, respectively. In the dried leaf, their concentrations were 2.85, 22.16 and 8.86 mg/100 g DW, respectively [27][28]. On the other hand, supplementation with 100 mg/dL of Moringa oleifera leaf per day has a similar effect to treatment with vitamin E at 50 mg/dL per day [8], contains more vitamin C than an orange and more calcium than dairy products, however a significant part of this calcium is present in the form of calcium oxalate crystals, which cannot be used by the body and is eliminated directly without being absorbed [2]. In addition, Moringa oleifera is high in potassium and iron; even more than bananas and spinach respectively [29].

Moringa oleifera seed has a high proportion of monounsaturated/saturated fatty acids (MUFA/SFA), sterols and tocopherols, as well as proteins rich in sulphur amino acids [30]. As reported in previous studies, Moringa oleifera seed oils (also called Behen oil, which is the commercial name given to Moringa oleifera oil) have similar fatty acid content and physicochemical parameters to those reported for other vegetable oils and can be considered as a healthy alternative to hydrogenated oils in food formulations. The main fatty acids present in Moringa oleifera oil are behenic, linoleic, stearic, palmitic, oleic, arachidic, linolenic, eicosenoic and heptadecanoic acids [20], with oleic acid being the main unsaturated fatty acid, with 73.5% in the seed oil [31]; carbohydrate content is 27.5% [22]. The seeds are a rich source of Ca and Mg, respectively [20][32].

Of the other edible parts of Moringa oleifera, with respect to carbohydrates, the pods contain 10.4%, stem 18.5%, bark 26.9% and stem with bark 31.1% [22]. Karuna et al. [33] found that the part with the highest level of fibre is the root (45.43%), compared to the stem (41.60%) and bark (25.73%). Immature pods and flowers are characterized by a higher content of total monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA, 16–30%) and are low in PUFA (34–47%), compared to leaves [34]. The highest K content is found in vegetative parts and immature pods [20][32].

3.2. Secondary Metabolites

The different parts of Moringa oleifera are good sources of glucosinolates, flavonoids and phenolic acids [20][35], carotenoids [36], tocopherols [37]. Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, steroids, phenolic acids, alkaloids, carotenoids, polyphenols, isothiocyanates, phytates, glucosinolates, flavonoids and terpenes can be found in the Moringa oleifera leaf [7]. Among the glucosinolates, benzyl 4-O-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-glucosinolate is the most predominant (glucomoringin) [20].

Its leaves include 11 phenolic acids (gallic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, o-coumaric acid, p-coumaric acid, ellagic acid, gentisic acid, sinapic acid, syringic acid) [38][39] and their derivatives (coumaroylquinic acids and their isomers, feruloylquinic and caffeoylquinic), 26 flavonoids (present mainly as flavonol and glycoside: quercetin, rhamnetin, campferol, apigenin and myricetin [7]. Flavonoids include flavonol glycosides (glycosides, rutinosides and malonylglycosides) of quercetin “kaempferol” 0.05–0.67%) isorhamnetin and lignans (isolariciresinol, medioresinol, epipinoresinol glycosides and secoisolariciresinol) [25][26][35]. Furthermore, there is a difference according to geographical area, showing a higher phenolic content in Pakistan than in India, Thailand, Nicaragua and even in the United States [14][16]. The flavonoid composition is higher in the leaves than in the seeds, ranging from 2000 to 12,200 mg per dl of Moringa oleifera leaf.

Moringa oleifera seed contains phytosterols, the most abundant of which are β-sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol [3][40]. Alkaloids, saponins, phytates, tannin [41] and phenolic compounds (quercetin and p-hydroxybenzoic acid) [42] can also be found.

The seed is oleaginous and has aleurone sources with a lectin fraction, is an oil that must be refined to be consumed and contains a similar composition to oleic acid, however, the composition may vary according to the geographical location of the plant [3]. Seeds are a good source of glucosinalates (8–10%), glycosylate isothiocyanate, 4-(α-L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl ITC [43] and 4-O-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylglucosinolate (glucomoringin) [20][43].

In other edible parts of Moringa oleifera, more than 102 bioactive compounds have been identified in the root, while 74 essential oils have been identified in the flowers. In addition, both the peel and the dried pod of Moringa oleifera fruit contain high levels of polysaccharides and glucans; 28% in the peel and 32% in the pod [44]. Glucosinolates have also been found, of which 4-O-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylglucosinolate (glucomoringin) is the most predominant in the stem, flowers and pods of Moringa Oleifera [20][43]. Although in the roots, benzyl glucosinolate (glucotropaeolin) is the most prominent [45], flavonoids, notably flavonol glycosides (glycosides, rutinosides, and malonylglycosides) of quercetin [kaempferol isorhamnetin] are also present in various parts of the plant, except in the roots and seeds [35].

Table 1 highlights the nutritional composition of the edible parts of Moringa oleifera and Table 2 highlights the nutritional composition of the Moringa oleifera leaf, since this plant organ is the most studied and most consumed [27], which concentrates most of the nutrients [8].

4. Biological Effects of Moringa oleifera

The bioactive compounds (Figure 1) present in Moringa oleifera confer properties associated with disease prevention and treatment, such as antimicrobial [46], anti-inflammatory [47], anticancer, antidiabetic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective and cardioprotective [48][49][50]. Primary and secondary metabolites may also be involved in these applications. Primary metabolites are proteins, polysaccharides and lipids involved in physiological functions. Among them, polysaccharides and fibres are the main compounds showing positive effects on chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and obesity. On the other hand, secondary metabolites are minor molecules, such as phenolic compounds, halogenated compounds, sterols, terpenes and small peptides. Most of the phytochemicals reported in Moringa oleifera offer potential in the prevention and treatment of diseases.

The anti-inflammatory effect is due to the content of flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins and glycosides, among which quercetin appears to inhibit NF-KB activation, producing an anti-inflammatory effect [51]. Other compounds with an anti-inflammatory effect include kaempferol derivatives, flavonol glycosides [52][53], aurantiamide acetate, 1,3-dibenzylurea [54][55], diterpenes, α- and β-amyrin [56], benzaldehyde 4-0-β-glucoside [52][53], β-sitosterol [39], rutin [57], and glucosinolate, mainly attributed to the glycosylate isothiocyanate, 4-(α-L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl ITC, resulting from myrosinase [43]. Moringa oleifera reduces inflammation by suppressing inflammatory enzymes and proteins in the body, and leaf concentrate can significantly reduce inflammation in cells [58].

The antimicrobial effect provided essential oils from the leaves and alcoholic extracts of the seeds. In fact, Chuang et al. [44] demonstrated this activity of the leaf and leaves against dermatophytes such as Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes [44]. In addition to these compounds, other compounds have been found that also produce this effect, 4(βL-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl isocyanate or pterigospermine,4-(β-D-glucopyranosyl-1→4-β-l-ramnopyranosyloxy),benzyl thiocarboxamide,(-)-Catechin, phenylmethanamine, 4β-D-glucopyranosyl-1-->4 β-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzyl isocyanate, niazirine [54][59][60] and glucosinolate mainly attributed to the glycosylate isothiocyanate, 4-(α-L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl ITC, resulting from myrosinase [43].

Phenolic compounds have been associated with the antimicrobial and antifungal activities of Moringa oleifera extracts [61], the leaves being the organs with the highest amount of these compounds. Regarding the antimicrobial effect of Moringa oleifera plants when included in food, Moringa Oleifera contributes to control the growth of undesirable microorganisms, due to low pH values and the presence of pterigospermin [62]. The roots of Moringa oleifera have antibacterial properties and are described to be rich in antimicrobial agents. The bark extract has been found to have antifungal activities, while the juice of the bark and stem show an antibacterial effect against Staphylococcus aureus [63].

Studies have shown the anticarcinogenic effect of several compounds, namely glycosylated isothiocyanate, benzyl carbamate niazimycin and β-sitosterol, which have antitumour properties against lung, breast, skin, oesophageal and pancreatic cancer. These compounds are found in high concentrations in the leaves and seeds of the plant [64]. Moringa oleifera is rich in ascorbic acid, which provides an anti-diabetic effect by aiding insulin secretion, and another compound found in Moringa Oleifera that produces this effect is myricetin [65][66].

Antioxidants are popular because they scavenge free radicals that cause oxidative stress, cell damage and inflammation. Moringa oleifera contains antioxidants called flavonoids, polyphenols and ascorbic acid in the leaves, flowers and seeds [67]. Studies have shown that the plant is rich in polyphenols, which gives it a high antioxidant capacity. The compounds in Moringa oleifera that provide this activity are feluric, gallic and ellagic acids, β-sitosterol, myricetin, niazimycin, niacimicin A and B, tocopherols: α-tocopherol, δ-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol, vanillin, kaempferol, quercetin, β-carotene (-)-catechin, astragalin and isoquercetin [54][55][57][66][68][69][70][71][72][73].

Moringa oleifera plays an important role in protecting the liver from damage, oxidation and toxicity due to the high concentrations of polyphenols in its leaves and flowers. Moringa oleifera oil can also restore liver enzymes to normal levels, reducing oxidative stress and increasing protein content in the liver. The flowers and roots of the Moringa oleifera plant contain a compound called quercetin, which is known to protect the liver [74]. Other compounds contained in the plant with this activity are β-sitosterol, quercetin and some of its glycosides, rutin [57][71] and flavonoids, which also prevent lipid oxidation [75].

Moringa oleifera leaves and seeds have been found to help lower blood pressure; this is due to compounds called glycosides [74], and in the leaves it is also due to N-α-L-rhamnophyranosyl vincosamide [57]. Moringa oleifera leaf extract has also been found to significantly reduce cholesterol levels due to the action of β-sitosterol [74].

5. Toxic or Adverse Effects

Moringa oleifera is not entirely safe, as many studies have found various compounds that have been associated with major liver, kidney, haematological and other diseases. Roasted Moringa oleifera seeds contain potential mutagens such as 4-(α-lramnopyranosyloxy)-benzylglucosinolate, which increase the proportion of micronucleated polychromatophilic erythroblasts, indicative of some degree of genotoxicity [76]. The leaf has a high concentration of saponins, which can be potentially harmful for vegetarians, as their consumption reduces the bioavailability of divalent and trivalent metals such as Zn and Mg [77]. Moringin alkaloids, spirochin and the phytochemical benzothiocyanate have been found in the root and bark, toxic substances that predominate in the root and bark; the leaf was therefore identified as the safest edible part [11].

6. Applications of Moringa oleifera in Food Industry

Moringa oleifera has several uses due to its composition. The seed powder is used to purify water, eliminating a large amount of suspended material in rivers and turbid waters, making it a natural coagulant for water treatment. The oil from the seeds can be used as a fertiliser in plantations to encourage the growth of other species; it is also used for cosmetics such as soaps and perfumes [6], and even for the production of biodiesel [29]. Moringa oleifera extracts can be used to produce zeatin effective for plant development, increasing crop yields [78]. In addition to these applications, Moringa oleifera has been used in food, for example, in Mexico as an ingredient to partially replace fishmeal in tilapia feed, due to its protein and carbohydrate content [79].

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/plants10020318

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