You're using an outdated browser. Please upgrade to a modern browser for the best experience.
Early Sings in ASDs: History
View Latest Version
Please note this is an old version of this entry, which may differ significantly from the current revision.
Subjects: Pathology
Contributor: Yolanda De Diego Otero

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is neurodevelopmental pathology that manifest as deficits in certain fundamental areas.

  • ASD
  • early detection
  • risk markers
  • screening
  • theoretical study

1. Introduction

The diagnostic requirements for ASD have just two criteria, namely A) deficits in communication and social interaction and B) restricted and repetitive behaviors and interests, as shown by the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) diagnostic scheme.

Considering data from the last decades, several studies have been published to support the hypothesis of an increased number of ASD cases. Prevalence differs in some populational studies from North America, indicating 1 out of 68 children in 2012 [1] or 1 out of 59 in 2014 [2]. The most recent published study indicated that ASD prevalence was 13.4 per 1000 children aged 4 years in 2010, 15.3 in 2012, and 17.0 in 2014. It has been proposed that the average age of diagnosis is three or four years of age, or even later for children of low socioeconomic status or without a previous family history of ASD. The period between initial suspicion of ASD and final diagnosis can be a stressful and confusing time for families, and early identification and intervention can address this issue [3]. Nonetheless, perhaps the most crucial reason that justifies the need to detect the first symptoms is that it allows for intensive early intervention that leads to a better long-term prognosis [4]. In fact, in retrospective reports, most parents of children with ASD recall concerns regarding their child’s development after the first year of life [5].

Although screening for ASD is recommended at 18 months using M-CHAT, according to studies that have been conducted with high-risk siblings, sufficient evidence has been found to affirm that there are differential behavioral markers of ASD between 12 and 18 months of age [6]. Additionally, the M-CHAT instrument performs with a low-to-moderate accuracy in children with developmental concerns [7].

For effective screening, both specific screening tools (designed to identify children with risk signs of ASD) and wide-range screening tools can be used. With this second approach, children with any developmental difficulties will be detected in a first examination, and specific ASD tools will be used in the follow-up on this group. More accurate screening tools are essential for proper early detection. The best tools are those with higher values for sensitivity and positive predictive values (PPV). Sensitivity refers to the proportion of children correctly identified as “high-risk”, and PPV is defined as the proportion of children with positive screening who finally receive a diagnosis [7].

2. Screening Instrumets

Table 1 shows the level 1 screening instruments applied from 12 months of age that met the abovementioned inclusion criteria. Screening instruments that can be applied before 18 months are shaded.

Table 1. Screening instruments for a population under two years of age.

Instrument Administration Age (Months) Used Sample (Children) Sensitivity Specificity Positive Predictive Value (PPV) Negative Predictive Value (NPV) Reference
APSI 6–24 204 high-risk, 79 low-risk controls 0.67 0.87 6–8 months: 0.43
21–24 months: 0.79		 0.87–0.99 [10]
BeDevel 18–42 155 (75 ASD, 55 NT, 25 OPD) 0.83 0.81 0.80 0.83 [11]
BDI-II 0–95 604 ASD,
1064 NT		 0.94 0.31 --- --- [12]
BISCUIT 17–37 1007 risk of ASD 0.93 0.86 … … [13]
BITSEA 11–48 223 ASD,
289 non-ASD		 Up to 24 months: 0.91 Up to 24 months: 0.80 --- --- [14]
CASI (for Indi) 18-120 405 (75 ID, 83 ASD, 87 OPD, 160 NT) 0.89 0.89 0.67 0.96 [15]
CBCL 1.5-5 18–71 226 ASD,
163 OPD		 0.74 0.53 --- --- [16]
CBCL 1.5-5
(Withdrawn PDP Scale)		 18–59 101 ASD,
117 NT		 Withdrawn: 0.89
PDP: 0.85		 Withdrawn: 0.92
PDP: 0.90		 Withdrawn: 0.90
PDP: 0.88		 Withdrawn: 0.90
PDP: 0.87		 [17]
18–59 80 ASD,
103 OPD		 Withdrawn: 0.88
PDP: 0.83		 Withdrawn: 0.63
PDP: 0.60		 Withdrawn: 0.65
PDP: 0.62		 Withdrawn: 0.87
PDP: 0.82		 [18]
CESDD 3–39 357 risk of ASD or language problems 0.92 and 0.90 0.73 and 0.68 0.19 and 0.32 0.99 and 0.98 [19]
CS-TSA 18–60 27 ASD,
41 OPD,
64 NT		 Section 1: 0.89
Section 2: 0.78		 Section 1: 0.68
Section 2: 0.79		 --- --- [20]
DBC-ES 18–48 n = 142 ASD or PDD
n = 65 OPD		 0.83 0.48 0.78 0.56 [21]
Screening questionnaire developed for Taiwan 18–24 18 ASD,
59 NT		 1 0.96 0.90 1 [22]
ECSA (Brief) 18–60 69 ASD 0.89 0.85 --- --- [23]
FYI 12 38 ASD,
15 NO-ASD, developmental delay
40 NT		 0.92 0.78 0.74 0.93 [24]
ITC/CSBS-DP 6–24 5385 general population 0.93 0.89 12–24 months: +0.70 12–24 months: +0.87 [25]
M-CHAT 16–30 Sample 1: 2480 High- and low-risk
Sample 2: 2055 low-risk		 Both samples: 1 Both samples: 0.98 M1: 0.35
M2: 0.19		 1 [26]
122 risk of ASD,
106 NT		 0.86 0.80 0.88 --- [27]
966 born very premature 0.52 0.84 0.20 0.96 [28]
109 language delay
732 NT		 0.90 0.99 0.96 0.99 [29]
M-CHAT/F 16/30 341 positive for M-CHAT 0.55 0.79 0.78 --- [30]
M-CHAT-R/F 16–30 15,612 general population 0.96 0.86 0.47 0.99 [31]
M-CHAT-JV/F 16–30 1851 general population 0.47 0.98 0.45 --- [32]
PAAS 18–48 105 general population 0.88 0.93 0.95 0.84 [33]
PDQ-1 18–36 42 ASD,
38 OPD,
100 NT		 0.85 0.99 0.88 0.99 [34]
POEMS 1–24 108 high-risk 0.74 0.73     [35]
POSI 16–48 232 children (16–36 months) 0.83 0.75 --- --- [36]
PREAUT Grid 4–24 4755
general population		 P-4: 0.16 a 0.21
P-9: 0.30 a 0.41
P-24: 0.40–0.41		 P-4: 0.99
P-9: 0.99
P-24: 0.99		 P-4: 0.25 a 0.26
P-9: 0.20 a 0.36
P-24: 0.26 a 0.27		 P-4: 0.99
P-9: 0.99
P-24: 0.99		 [37]
Q-CHAT-10 18–24 126 ASD 0.91 0.89 0.58 --- [38]
SACS 12–24 20,770 general population 0.69 a 0.83 0.99 0.81 --- [39]
STAT 12–23 71 siblings with ASD 0.95 0.73 0.56 0.97 [40]
SORF 18–24 n = 84 ASD,
n = 82 OPD,
n = 62 NT		 0.80 0.78 0.81 0.78 [41]
TIDOS 18–60 n = 86 ASD
n = 76 OPD
n = 97 general population		 0.95 0.85 0.91 0.90 [42]
YACHT-18 18 2814
general population		 0.60 ASD,
0.82 other developmental disorders		 0.86 for developmental disorders --- --- [43]

ASD: Autism Spectrum disorder. APSI: Autism Parent Screen for Infants. BDI-II: Battelle Developmental Inventory, second edition. BISCUIT: Baby and Infant Screen for Children with autism Traits. BITSEA: Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment. CBCL: Child Behavior Checklist. PDP: Pervasive Developmental Problems. CESDD: Checklist for Early Signs of Developmental Disorders. CASI: Chandigarh Autism Screening Instrument. CS-TSA: “Chestionarul de Screening Pentru Tulburări de Spectru Autist”. DBC-ES: Developmental Behavior Checklist: Early Screen. ECSA: Brief Early Childhood Screening Assessment. FYI: First Year Inventory. ID: Intellectual Disability. ITC/CSBS-DP: Infant-Toddler Checklist/Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales Developmental Profile. M-CHAT: Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers. M-CHAT-R: Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised. M-CHAT-R/F: Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised with Follow-Up. M-CHAT-JV/F: Japanese Version of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised with Follow-Up. NT: Normotypic. OPD: Other Pervasive Disorders. PAAS: Pictorial Autism Assessment Schedule. PDQ-1: Psychological Development Questionnaire-1. POEMS: Parent Observation of Early Markers Scale. POSI: Parent’s Observational Screen of Social Interactions. PPV: Positive predictive value. NPV: Negative predictive value. PREAUT Grid: “Programme de Recherches et d’Etudes sur l’Autisme”. P-4, P-9, P-24: PREAUT 4, 9 or 24 months. Q-CHAT-10: Quantitative Checklist for Autism in Toddlers. SACS: Social Attention and Communication Study. STAT: Screening Tool for Autism in Toddlers and Young Children. TIDOS: Three-Item Direct Observation Screen. YACHT-18: Young Autism and Other Developmental Disorders Checkup Tool. Shaded: Screening instruments that can be applied before 18 months.

 

Among all the instruments identified in this work, the following instruments stand out for their predictive value and their easy and early application from 12 months of age:

BDI-II (Battelle development inventory, second edition): Evaluates children from 12 months to 8 years [12]. It helps measure a child’s progress along this developmental continuum by both global domains and discrete skill sets. The screening tool takes approximately 10–30 min to complete.

BITSEA (Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment): Evaluates children from 11 to 48 months old. The 42-item questionnaire aims to identify children with social-emotional problems, behavior, or deficits in social and emotional competence [44]. The screening takes approximately 30 min to complete.

FYI: (First Year Inventory): This is a screening parent-report questionnaire [24]. It is a 63-item questionnaire developed as a general population-screening tool to identify 12-month-old infants who might be at risk for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or a related developmental disorder. The screening takes approximately 30 min to complete.

ITC/CSBS-DP (Infant-Toddler Checklist/Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales Developmental Profile): This is a 24-item questionnaire used as a screening tool for children from 9 months old and is a part of the evolutionary profile of the CSBS-DP scales. It was originally developed as a measure of language detection and evaluates social and communication behaviors [45]. It takes 10 min to complete.

PREAUT-Grid (Program of Research and Studies on AUTISM): A 10-item test to be administered by the pediatrician from observing how the child interacts with the pediatrician and his mother [37]. Evaluates children from 4 to 24 months old.

APSI (Autism Parent Screen for Infants): Evaluates children from 6 to 24 months old [10]. It is a 26-item forced-choice (yes, sometimes, no) parent-report questionnaire designed to monitor early signs of ASD in infants aged 6–24 months and takes approximately 10–15 min to complete.

CESDD (Checklist for Early Signs of Developmental Disorders): A 12-item checklist completed by nursery staff for children from 3 to 39 months [19]. It takes 10 min to complete.

SACS (Social Attention and Communication Study): A 15-item tool completed by clinicians to assess children from 8 to 24 months old [39]. It takes 10 min to complete.

STAT (Screening Tool for Autism in Toddlers and Young Children): A tool for children from 12 to 23 months old [40]. It consists of 12 activities assessing play, communication, and imitation skills and takes 15–20 min to administer by a trained clinician.

Table 2 includes the screening instruments found in this search that were valid to be used in children after 2 years.

Table 2. Screening instruments used in children older than 2 years.

Instrument Administration Age (Years) Sample Used Sensitivity Specificity Positive Predictive Value (PPV) Negative Predictive Value (NPV) Reference
AQ-10 Child 4–11 432 ASD 0.95 0.97 0.94 --- [38]
ASRS 2–18 37 ASD,
30 OPD		 Parents: 0.64
Teachers: 0.52		 Parents: 63.30
Teachers: 0.71		 Parents: 0.68
Teachers: 0.61		 Parents: 0.59
Teachers: 0.62		 [46]
BASC-2
(PRS-P)		 2–5 224 positive ASD screening 0.76 0.73 0.86 0.57 [47]
CASD
CASD SF		 3–17 469 ASD,
138 OPD		 CASD: 0.86
CASD SF: 0.95		 CASD: 100
CASD SF: 0.96		 … … [48]
CAST 4–12 1496 general population Complete version: 0.83
Reduced version: 0.85		 Complete version: 0.92
Reduced version: 0.91		 Complete version: 0.63
Reduced version: 0.61		 --- [49]
EDUTEA 3–12 2660 general population 0.87 0.91 0.86 0.99 [50]
M-CHAT and JA-OBS 2–3 3999 general population 0.90 --- 0.96 --- [51]
OERA 3–10 76 ASD,
23 non-ASD		 0.92 0.91 0.92 --- [52]
SCQ 3–7 219 premature children 0.91 0.86 0.31 0.99 [53]

AQ-10: Short Autism Spectrum Quotient. ASD: Autism spectrum disorder. ASRS: Autism Spectrum Rating Scales. BASC-2: Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition. PRS-P Scale: Parent Rating Scales—Preschool. CASD: Checklist for Autism Spectrum Disorder. CASD-SF: Checklist for Autism Spectrum Disorder, Short Form. CAST: Childhood Autism Spectrum Test. M-CHAT: Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers. JA-OBS: Joint Attention Observation of Toddlers. OPD: Other Pervasive Disorders. OREA: Structured Observation for Autism Screening (acronym in Portuguese). PPV: Positive predictive value. NPV: Negative predictive value. SCQ: Social Communication

In order to analyze the risk of bias in the eligible studies, an assessment was done, according to the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0. Details are shown in Supplementary Table S1. These points need to be taken into account: (A) The samples included in the studies were largely heterogeneous from the general population, including children from different groups with ASD, OPD, or typical development. (B) Several studies were not using a control group. (C) There were limitations of sample size in several studies, which makes it hard to conclude the predictive ability of the screening instruments in larger populations. (D) Different patient ages in the groups were found that may affect the results. (E) Some studies indicated that the scale was performed by the parents alone and other studies by a child psychologist during a home visit or at the clinic.
 
Reference (Editors will rearrange the references after the entry is submitted)
  1. Christensen, D.L.; Bilder, D.A.; Zahorodny, W.; Pettygrove, S.; Durkin, M.S.; Fitzgerald, R.T.; Rice, C.; Kurzius-Spencer, M.; Baio, J.; Yeargin-Allsopp, M. Prevalence and Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder Among 4-Year-Old Children in the Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 2016, 37, 1–8.
  2. Baio, J.; Wiggins, L.; Christensen, D.L.; Maenner, M.J.; Daniels, J.; Warren, Z.; Kurzius-Spencer, M.; Zahorodny, W.; Robinson Rosenberg, C.; White, T.; et al. Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders in a Total Population Sample-Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2014. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2018, 67, 1–25.
  3. Hernandez, J.M.; Artigas-Pallares, J.; Martos-Perez, J.; Palacios, S.; Fuentes-Biggi, J.; Belinchon-Carmona, M.; Canal-Bedia, R.; Diez-Cuervo, A.; Ferrari-Arroyo, M.J.; Hervas, A.; et al. Guía de buena práctica para la detección temprana de los trastornos del espectro autista. Rev. Neurol. 2005, 41, 237–245.
  4. Jones, E.J.H.; Gliga, T.; Bedford, R.; Charman, T.; Johnson, M.H. Developmental pathways to autism: A review of prospective studies of infants at risk. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2014, 39, 1–33.
  5. Chawarska, K.; Paul, R.; Klin, A.; Hannigen, S.; Dichtel, L.E.; Volkmar, F. Parental Recognition of Developmental Problems in Toddlers with Autism Spectrum Disorders. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2007, 37, 62–72.
  6. Zwaigenbaum, L.; Bryson, S.; Garon, N. Early identification of autism spectrum disorders. Behav. Brain Res. 2013, 251, 133–146.
  7. Beranova, S.; Stoklasa, J.; Dudova, I.; Markova, D.; Kasparova, M.; Zemankova, J.; Urbanek, T.; Talasek, T.; Luukka, P.; Hrdlicka, M. A possible role of the Infant/Toddler Sensory Profile in screening for autism: A proof-of-concept study in the specific sample of prematurely born children with birth weights <1500 g. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 2017, 13, 191–200.  
  8. DMoher, L.A.; Tetzlaff, J.; Altman, D.G. Prisma Group Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009, 6, e1000097.
  9. Petrocchi, S.; Levante, A.; Lecciso, F. Systematic Review of Level 1 and Level 2 Screening Tools for Autism Spectrum Disorders in Toddlers. Brain Sci. 2020, 10, 180.
  10. Sacrey, L.R.; Bryson, S.; Zwaigenbaum, L.; Brian, J.; Smith, I.M.; Roberts, W.; Szatmari, P.; Vaillancourt, T.; Roncadin, C.; Garon, N. The Autism Parent Screen for Infants: Predicting risk of autism spectrum disorder based on parent-reported behavior observed at 6-24 months of age. Autism 2018, 22, 322–334.
  11. Bong, G.; Kim, J.H.; Hong, Y.; Yoon, N.H.; Sunwoo, H.; Jang, J.Y.; Oh, M.; Lee, K.S.; Jung, S.; Yoo, H.J. The Feasibility and Validity of Autism Spectrum Disorder Screening Instrument: Behavior Development Screening for Toddlers (BeDevel)-A Pilot Study. Autism Res. 2019, 12, 1112–1128.
  12. Sipes, M.; Matson, J.L.; Turygin, N. The use of the Battelle Developmental Inventory–Second Edition (BDI-2) as an early screener for autism spectrum disorders. Dev. Neurorehabil. 2011, 14, 310–314.
  13. Matson, J.L.; Wilkins, J.; Sharp, B.; Knight, C.; Sevin, J.A.; Boisjoli, J.A. Sensitivity and specificity of the Baby and Infant Screen for Children with aUtIsm Traits (BISCUIT): Validity and cutoff scores for autism and PDD-NOS in toddlers. Res. Autism Spectr. Disord. 2009, 3, 924–930.
  14. Kiss, I.G.; Feldman, M.S.; Sheldrick, R.C.; Carter, A.S. Developing Autism Screening Criteria for the Brief Infant Toddler Social Emotional Assessment (BITSEA). J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2017, 47, 1269–1277.
  15. Arun, P.; Chavan, B.S. Development of a screening instrument for autism spectrum disorder: Chandigarh Autism Screening Instrument. Indian J. Med. Res. 2018, 147, 369–375.
  16. Dereu, M.; Raymaekers, R.; Warreyn, P.; Schietecatte, I.; Meirsschaut, M.; Roeyers, H. Can child care workers contribute to the early detection of autism spectrum disorders? A comparison between screening instruments with child care workers versus parents as informants. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2012, 42, 781–796.
  17. Havdahl, K.A.; von Tetzchner, S.; Huerta, M.; Lord, C.; Bishop, S.L. Utility of the Child Behavior Checklist as a Screener for Autism Spectrum Disorder. Autism Res. 2016, 9, 33–42.
  18. Limberg, K.; Gruber, K.; Noterdaeme, M. The German version of the Child Behavior Checklist 1.5-5 to identify children with a risk of autism spectrum disorder. Autism 2017, 21, 368–374.
  19. Dereu, M.; Roeyers, H.; Raymaekers, R.; Meirsschaut, M.; Warreyn, P. How useful are screening instruments for toddlers to predict outcome at age 4? General development, language skills, and symptom severity in children with a false positive screen for autism spectrum disorder. Eur. Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2012, 21, 541–551.
  20. David, D.; Dobrean, A.; Mogoaşe, C.; Dobrescu, I. Screening for autism in Romanian population: An initial study investigating the clinical utility of the Screening Questionnaire for Autism Spectrum Disorders (Chestionarul de Screening pentru Tulburări de Spectru Autist—CS-TSA). Transylv. J. Psychol. 2013, 14, 127–148.
  21. Gray, K.M.; Tonge, B.J.; Sweeney, D.J.; Einfeld, S.L. Screening for Autism in young children with developmental delay: An evaluation of the Developmental Behavior Checklist: Early Screen. JADD 2008, 38, 1003–1010.
  22. Tsai, W.-C.; Soong, W.-T.; Shyu, Y.-I.L. Toddler autism screening questionnaire: Development and potential clinical validity. Autism 2012, 16, 340–349.
  23. Fallucco, E.M.; Wysocki, T.; James, L.; Kozikowski, C.; Williams, A.; Gleason, M.M. The Brief Early Childhood Screening Assessment: Preliminary Validity in Pediatric Primary Care. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2017, 38, 89–98.
  24. Watson, L.R.; Baranek, G.T.; Crais, E.R.; Reznick, J.S.; Dykstra, J.; Perryman, T. The First Year Inventory: Retrospective parent responses to a questionnaire designed to identify one-year-olds at risk for autism. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2007, 37, 49–61.
  25. Wetherby, A.M.; Brosnan-maddox, S.; Peace, V.; Newton, L. Validation of the Infant-Toddler Checklist as a Broadband Screener for Autism Spectrum Disorders from 9 to 24 Months of Age. Autism 2008, 12.
  26. Canal-Bedia, R.; García-Primo, P.; Martín-Cilleros, M.V.; Santos-Borbujo, J.; Guisuraga-Fernández, Z.; Herráez-García, L.; Herráez-García, M.M.; Boada-Muñoz, L.; Fuentes-Biggi, J.; Posada-de, L.P.M. Modified checklist for autism in toddlers: Cross-cultural adaptation and validation in Spain. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2011, 41, 1342–1351.
  27. Seif Eldin, A.; Habib, D.; Noufal, A.; Farrag, S.; Bazaid, K.; Al-Sharbati, M.; Badr, H.; Moussa, S.; Essali, A.; Gaddour, N. Use of M-CHAT for a multinational screening of young children with autism in the Arab countries. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 2008, 20, 281–289.
  28. Kim, S.H.; Joseph, R.M.; Frazier, J.A.; O’Shea, T.M.; Chawarska, K.; Allred, E.N.; Leviton, A.; Kuban, K.K. Extremely Low Gestational Age Newborn (ELGAN) Study Investigators. Predictive validity of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) born very preterm. J. Pediatr. 2016, 178, 101–107.
  29. Srisinghasongkram, P.; Pruksananonda, C.; Chonchaiya, W. Two-Step Screening of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers in Thai Children with Language Delay and Typically Developing Children. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2016, 46, 3317–3329.
  30. Sturner, R.; Howard, B.; Bergmann, P.; Morrel, T.; Andon, L.; Marks, D.; Rao, P.; Landa, R. Autism Screening with Online Decision Support by Primary Care Pediatricians Aided by M-CHAT/F. Pediatrics 2016, 138.
  31. Robins, D.; Casagrande, K.; Barton, M.; Chen, C.-M.; Dumont-Mathieu, T.; Fein, D. Validation of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised with Follow-up (M-CHAT-R/F). Pediatrics 2014, 133, 37–45.
  32. Kamio, Y.; Inada, N.; Koyama, T.; Inokuchi, E.; Tsuchiya, K.; Kuroda, M. Effectiveness of using the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers in two-stage screening of autism spectrum disorder at the 18-month health check-up in Japan. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2014, 44, 194–203.
  33. Perera, H.; Jeewandara, K.C.; Seneviratne, S.; Guruge, C. Culturally adapted pictorial screening tool for autism spectrum disorder: A new approach. World J. Clin. Pediatr. 2017, 6, 45–51.
  34. Zahorodny, W.; Shenouda, J.; Mehta, U.; Yee, E.; Garcia, P.; Rajan, M.; Goldfarb, M. Preliminary Evaluation of a Brief Autism Screener for Young Children. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 2018, 39, 183–191.
  35. Feldman, M.A.; Ward, R.A.; Savona, D.; Regehr, K.; Parker, K.; Hudson, M.; Penning, H.; Holden, J.J. Development and initial validation of a parent report measure of the behavioral development of infants at risk for autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev. Disord. 2012, 42, 13–22.
  36. Smith, N.J.; Sheldrick, C.; Perrin, E.L. An abbreviated screening instrument for autism spectrum disorders. Infant Ment. Health J. 2013, 34, 149–155.
  37. Olliac, B.; Crespin, G.; Laznik, M.C.; Cherif Idrissi El Ganouni, O.; Sarradet, J.L.; Bauby, C.; Dandres, A.M.; Ruiz, E.; Bursztejn, C.; Xavier, J.; et al. Infant and dyadic assessment in early community-based screening for autism spectrum disorder with the PREAUT grid. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0188831.
  38. Allison, C.; Auyeung, B.; Baron-Cohen, S. Toward brief “red flags” for autism screening: The Short Autism Spectrum Quotient and the Short Quantitative Checklist for Autism in Toddlers in 1000 cases and 3000 controls. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2012, 51, 338.
  39. Barbaro, J.; Dissanayake, C. Prospective identification of autism spectrum disorders in infancy and toddlerhood using developmental surveillance: The social attention and communication study. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 2010, 3, 376–385.
  40. Stone, W.L.; McMahon, C.R.; Henderson, L.M. Use of the Screening Tool for Autism in Two-Year-Olds (STAT) for children under 24 months: An exploratory study. Autism 2008, 12, 557–573.
  41. Dow, D.; Day, T.N.; Kutta, T.J.; Nottke, C.; Wetherby, A.M. Screening for autism spectrum disorder in a naturalistic home setting using the systematic observation of red flags (SORF) at 18-24 months. Autism Res. 2020, 13, 122–133.
  42. Oner, P.; Oner, O.; Munir, K. Three-Item Direct Observation Screen (TIDOS) for autism spectrum disorder. Autism 2014, 18, 733–742.
  43. Honda, H.; Shimizu, Y.; Nitto, Y.; Imai, M.; Ozawa, T.; Iwasa, M.; Shiga, K.; Hira, T. Extraction and Refinement Strategy for detection of autism in 18-month-olds: A guarantee of higher sensitivity and specificity in the process of mass screening. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 2009, 50, 972–981.
  44. Briggs-Gowan, M.; Carter, A.; Irwin, J.; Wachtel, K.; Cicchetti, D. The Brief-Infant Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment: Screening for social emotional problems and delays in competence. J. Pediatr. Psychol. 2004, 29, 143–155.
  45. Towle, P.O.; Patrick, P.A. Autism Spectrum Disorder Screening Instruments for Very Young Children: A Systematic Review. Autism Res. Treat. 2016, 2016, 1–29.
  46. Cunningham, S. Examining the Validity of the Autism Spectrum Rating Scales with a Preschool Population Referred for Special Education Evaluation; Department of Educational Psychology, University of Utah: Salt Lake City, UT, USA, 2013.
  47. Bradstreet, L.E.; Juechter, J.I.; Kamphaus, R.W.; Kerns, C.M.; Robins, D.L. Using the BASC-2 Parent Rating Scales to screen for autism spectrum disorder in toddlers and preschool-aged children. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2017, 45, 359–370.
  48. Mayes, S.D. Brief Report: Checklist for Autism Spectrum Disorder: Most Discriminating Items for Diagnosing Autism. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2017, 1–5.
  49. Morales-Hidalgo, P.; Roige-Castellvi, J.; Vigil-Colet, A.; Sans, J.C. The Childhood Autism Spectrum Test (CAST): Spanish adaptation and validation. Autism Res. 2017, 10, 1491–1498.
  50. Morales-Hidalgo, P.; Hernández-Martínez, C.; Voltas, N.; Canals, J. EDUTEA: A DSM-5 teacher screening questionnaire for autism spectrum disorder and social pragmatic communication disorder. Int. J. Clin. Heal. Psychol. 2017, 17, 269–281.
  51. Nygren, G.; Sandberg, E.; Gillstedt, F.; Ekeroth, G.; Arvidsson, T.; Gillberg, C. A new screening programme for autism in a general population of Swedish toddlers. Res. Dev. Disabil. 2012, 33, 1200–1210.
  52. Paula, C.S.; Cunha, G.R.; Bordini, D.; Brunoni, D.; Moya, A.C.; Bosa, C.A.; Mari, J.J.; Cogo-Moreira, H. Identifying Autism with a Brief and Low-Cost Screening Instrument—OERA: Construct Validity, Invariance Testing, and Agreement Between Judges. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2017, 1–12.
  53. Johnson, S.; Hollis, C.; Hennessy, E.; Kochhar, P.; Wolke, D.; Marlow, N. Screening for autism in preterm children: Diagnostic utility of the Social Communication Questionnaire. Arch. Dis. Child. 2011, 96, 73–77.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/children8020164

© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
This entry is offline, you can click here to edit this entry!
Academic Video Service
Feedback