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The Relationship of Humans and Horses—A Perspective from the Past to the Future: History
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Contributor: Inês Pereira-Figueiredo

The love for horses is deeply rooted in human history and culture, captivating us with their magnificent nature. For millennia, horses have been crucial to human survival and development, providing transportation, labor, and even status. Currently, interest in human relationships with other animals has grown significantly, in the context of promoting the well-being and essential health of both species. This entry aims to explore the possibilities of human–horse relationships, from early interactions to strong bonds. The literature collected here highlights the complexity of this relationship, with special attention to the various biological and social factors involved. The text compares historical practices with current perspectives, examining how these changes affect the relationship between humans and horses. It examines how connecting with horses potentially benefits both humans and horses, underlining the importance of recognizing horse behavior and noting that our assumptions may not reflect their true needs. This literature enriches our understanding of the multifaceted nature of human–horse relationships, offering a new perspective on horse care, which focuses on positive relationship and well-being, and therefore on the importance of harmonious provision of all domains of well-being, highlighting the importance of healthy behavioral interactions and emotional stability of both species.

  • human-horse interactions
  • welfare domains
  • horse behavior
  • connection to humans
  • horse perception
The affection for horses (Equus caballus) and the history of human–horse relationship are integral parts of our shared past and culture. Horses have undergone a profound evolutionary journey over millions of years, adapting as prey animals in a world where humans stood as their primary predators [1]. With the advent of domestication, a fascinating and intricate transformation unfolded. This evolutionary process has significantly influenced horses throughout the ages, reshaping not only their genetics but also their behaviors and function [2][3]. Domestication profited both humans and horses, as they rely on each other for success [3][4]. Although horses were domesticated later than many other animals, such as dogs, and economically significant livestock—like sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs—they profoundly impacted the trajectory of human civilization [2][3]. Humans derived numerous advantages from horses, notably by their remarkable moving ability, which significantly transformed the transportation of goods and people [2][5][6]. Their capacity to move swiftly over long distances opened new avenues for trade and communication, facilitating the expansion of societies and commerce. Also, horses’ unique strength was invaluable in both military and agricultural contexts [4][5][6].
Conversely, the animals benefited from domestication through the protection and care offered by humans [6]. In this new social structure, horses were provided with food, shelter, and veterinary care, which improved their survival rates and general health. They also became an important part of communities, playing roles in daily life and cultural practices, symbolizing power, loyalty, and companionship.
The successful process of domestication was, most probably, facilitated by the distinct characteristics inherent to each species [6][7]. In the case of horses, their instinctive flight response is complemented by a natural curiosity and a predisposition for social interaction. This blend of flight response and sociability creates a fascinating dynamic. Similarly, humans, as profound social beings, are driven by similar fundamental needs for connection and companionship [6]. According to Ferlazzo et al. [5], this mutual pursuit of social relationships may have initiated the bond between the two species, illustrating “the intricate interplay between instinct and sociability in the context of domestication”. These social traits have been consistently used over time, with each human–horse interaction contributing to the development of a relationship [5].
The domestication of horses transformed both human lives and horses’ lives [3]. By definition, domestication is a “mutualistic relationship wherein one organism exerts significant influence over the reproduction and care of another” [2]. In horses, for example, it has involved selective breeding by humans to enhance features that suited their needs. According to Niskanen [3], the possibility of horseback riding was the trait that drove the selection that resulted in the domestic horses we have today. Meaning “equestrianism” has involved the intended selection for animals with the right temperaments and better physical abilities [3].
Nowadays, horses are used mainly for sport and leisure pursuits [7][8][9][10]. Therefore, horses are regarded either as athletes [10] or as social agents [7][8], participating in leisure events, enduring close contact with humans. Whatever the context, it is generally supposed that those who care for horses typically prioritize their well-being [10]. Nevertheless, an increasing number of studies reveal the opposite [7][8][9][10][11][12][13]. The literature reveals disturbing data on the welfare and living conditions of horses. Even if being provided with advanced accommodation or top performance systems, horses are frequently subjected to inappropriate or intensive training routines, confined housing, and few interactions to conspecifics [7][8][9]. Several reasons are pointed out by the authors as being behind these human decisions, such as insufficient understanding of equine behavior [7][8], misconceptions about their needs [10], or social pressures [9][11][12][13]. Given the variety of opinions on proper horse care and ethical standards, convincing equine professionals and enthusiasts to re-evaluate established methods has proven to be a difficult task [8][10][12][13]. In recent years, organizations such as the Equestrian International Federation (FEI) recruited animal welfare scientists and experts to prepare a document ensuring that the protection and providing a good life for horses are recognized as human responsibilities [10]. However, Cheung et al. [11] carried out a very thorough survey that revealed a worrying trend among horse owners, the “objectification of horses”. In their study, most participants expected horses to perform tasks flawlessly for personal benefit, viewing them mainly as “instruments.” Accordingly, Bornemann [12], citing van Weeren [13], revealed that traditions in equestrian culture, which have been passed down through many generations, are an enduring barrier, where “the essentials of riding and the rules for horse breeding may not have changed for millennia”. Both reports highlight the prevailing attitudes within the equestrian culture, suggesting that changes have not yet happened or are happening slowly.
Many people enjoy interacting with horses, and the connections developed have become a topic of interest and practice [4][5][8][14][15]. Though the affective experiences exhibited when connecting to horses [1][5], limited research has explored the benefits of positive human–horse interactions [14]. Numerous studies have placed greater emphasis on the negative consequences that arise from poor interactions [6][15], often overlooking the importance of understanding equine behavior [7][8][14]. These analyses typically focus on problems like heightened reactions, riding difficulties, and accident risks [6][15]. In their research, Kieson and Abramson [14] found that even within certain models of equine-assisted psychotherapy—where positive horse–human engagement is intended to be central—horses are frequently treated as tools or “metaphors”, rather than as animals or partners. Surprisingly, they also revealed that an understanding of horse behavior was actively discouraged in some settings.
The relationship between humans and horses is a dynamic process that begins with mutual perception and evolves through ongoing communication [16]. Each interaction facilitates the development of trust, confidence, and effective messages, ultimately fostering collaboration between both species [5][6]. It is, however, difficult for us humans to step outside of ourselves and envision the world from an equine “standpoint”. Horses, as conscious beings that they are, experience many of the same feelings that we have [15][16]. While it is useful to understand the parallels of suffering and emotions, anthropomorphism should not represent them as mentally or physically equal to humans. As Fiedler et al. reasoned [16], attributing human characteristics to animals may have benefits, while including a sense of connection to a horse and being protective to neglect, but the authors agreed that it may also lead to mistaken assumptions regarding their mental experiences.
The horse has its own view of the world, and we, in our quest to provide them with a good life, have an obligation to consider it as such. Failing to provide them with suitable social or physical environments can lead to emotional distress and behavioral issues [10][14][16]. It not only complicates the quality of a relationship, often resulting in inconsistent behaviors, but may significantly influence the overall health of the horse [14][17], diminish their sense of well-being [10][11][16], or increase the likelihood of injuries [12][15][18].
In recent years, researchers and practitioners have shifted from focusing solely on understanding uncomfortable animal behaviors to recognizing the importance of positive experiences, as essential components of welfare [12][14][15][16][17][18][19]. The Five Domains framework of welfare has evolved in this direction over the past 30 years [16][19]. The new model focuses on the evidence that animals, consciously and objectively, seek to interact with their environment and other animals [10][17][19][20]. In this concept of well-being, guaranteeing the conditions of survival and nourishment (nutrition, physical environment, or health, i.e., the first three domains) is not enough [17][20]. The harmonious provision of all domains defines healthy behavioral interactions (Domain 4) and emotional stability (Domain 5) as highly important [19]. As such, the motivations that drive horses and how they cope with their environment must be recognized. Horses are motivated not by fear, but by innate curiosity and an openness to engage with other individuals.
This entry will strive to examine the foundational framework of human–horse relationships and their benefits, particularly within the context of a society that is increasingly distanced from nature, offering a new perspective on health and well-being.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/encyclopedia5040207

References

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  2. Outram, A.K. Horse domestication as a multi-centered, multi-stage process: Botai and the role of specialized Eneolithic horse pastoralism in the development of human-equine relationships. Front. Environ. Archaeol. 2023, 2, 1134068.
  3. Niskanen, M. The prehistoric origins of the domestic horse and horseback riding. Bull. Mém. Soc. Anthropol. Paris 2023, 35, 54–73.
  4. Payne, E.; DeAraugo, J.; Bennett, P.; McGreevy, P. Exploring the existence and potential underpinnings of dog–human and horse–human attachment bonds. Behav. Process. 2016, 125, 114–121.
  5. Ferlazzo, A.; Fazio, E.; Cravana, C.; Medica, P. Equine-assisted services: An overview of current scientific contributions on efficacy and outcomes on humans and horses. J. Vet. Behav. 2023, 59, 15–24.
  6. Lundberg, P.; Hartmann, E.; Roth, L.S. Does training style affect the human-horse relationship? Asking the horse in a separation–reunion experiment with the owner and a stranger. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2020, 233, 105144.
  7. Monterrubio, C.; Dashper, K.; Hernández-Espinosa, R. Human-Horse Relationships, Horse Welfare, and Abuse in Mexico: A Social Representation Approach. Soc. Anim. 2023, 10, 582–601.
  8. Merkies, K.; Franzin, O. Enhanced understanding of horse–human interactions to optimize welfare. Animals 2021, 11, 1347.
  9. Maurício, L.S.; Leme, D.P.; Hötzel, M.J. The Easiest Becomes the Rule: Beliefs, Knowledge and Attitudes of Equine Practitioners and Enthusiasts Regarding Horse Welfare. Animals 2024, 14, 1282.
  10. A Good Life for Horses: A Vision for the Future Involvement of Horses in Sport—Final Report; Equine Ethics and Wellbeing Commission: Lausanne, Switzerland, 2023.
  11. Cheung, E.; Mills, D.; Ventura, B.A. “But my horse is well cared for”: A qualitative exploration of cognitive dissonance and enculturation in equestrian attitudes toward performance horses and their welfare. Anim. Welf. 2025, 34, e50.
  12. Bornemann, D. An explanatory model, using self-determination theory, of the motivations for horse ownership. Qual. Res. Psychol. 2024, 22, 168–191.
  13. van Weeren, P.R. Guest editorial: How long will equestrian traditionalism resist science? Vet. J. 2008, 175, 289–290.
  14. Kieson, E.; Abramson, C.I. Equines as tools vs partners: A critical look at the uses and beliefs surrounding horses in equine therapies and argument for mechanical horses. J. Vet. Behav. 2016, 15, 94–95.
  15. Kelly, K.J.; McDuffee, L.A.; Mears, K. The effect of human–horse interactions on equine behaviour, physiology, and welfare: A scoping review. Animals 2021, 11, 2782.
  16. Fiedler, J.M.; Ayre, M.L.; Rosanowski, S.; Slater, J.D. Horse Sector Participants’ Attitudes towards Anthropomorphism and Animal Welfare and Wellbeing. Animals 2024, 14, 248.
  17. Arndt, S.S.; Goerlich, V.C.; van der Staay, F.J. A dynamic concept of animal welfare: The role of appetitive and adverse internal and external factors and the animal’s ability to adapt to them. Front. Anim. Sci. 2022, 3, 908513.
  18. Aydin, C.; Seyidoglu, N. Assessment of Horse-Human Interaction with New Technologies. In Equine Science-Applications and Implications of New Technologies; IntechOpen: London, UK, 2023.
  19. Mellor, D.J.; Beausoleil, N.J.; Littlewood, K.E.; McLean, A.N.; McGreevy, P.D.; Jones, B.; Wilkins, C. The 2020 Five Domains Model: Including Human–Animal Interactions in Assessments of Animal Welfare. Animals 2020, 10, 1870.
  20. Hall, C.; Kay, R. Living the good life? A systematic review of behavioural signs of affective state in the domestic horse (Equus caballus) and factors relating to quality of life. Part I: Fulfilment of species-specific needs. Anim. Welf. 2024, 33, e40.
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