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The entry is intended to define the concepts of risk communication and emergency communication. At the same time, it explains the difference not only from a communication point of view but also from a cultural one. Risk and emergency are two sociologically relevant events, and they are culturally constructed. They are events that bring about a socio-cultural change, which, in turn, is triggered by the population’s responses on the basis of the social perception of the events themselves, also conveyed by the different forms of communication. When communicating risk and emergencies, it is essential to educate people about alert and emergency systems. Above all, what they refer to and what kind of message they contain. The “warning communication” must be specific and refer exclusively to the threat to start the first phase of the communication through which it is possible to understand the type of threat and define the communication plan to be implemented later. The use of social media, which is strongly spread in digital society, allows not only rapid dissemination of information but also rapid communication and message selection (speed and content of the message are equally important). Alert and warning systems are very often linked to risk systems, since the risk from natural disasters (eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis) or technological catastrophes (nuclear power plant explosions) follows emergency phases when the phenomenon occurs. The communication processes, in and emergency, must be able to explain, persuade but also confer an assist the political decision-maker and the decision-making process itself through an alert system (especially in the first phase), followed by continuous dissemination through the media that the digital society offers, as well as through the usual systems adopted by government bodies (for example, bulletins and news), specialized research institutions and institutes with information and communication functions. In risk and emergency management, information and communication are to be considered, respectively, a basic element and a means of dissemination and training to educate the population to perceive a risk, to recognise emergencies and the possible impact of the risk. Differences will be expressed and analysed with reference to international examples.
- communication of risk
- communication of emergency
- culture
Today’s society is permeated by three elements that shape its development: the spread and use of mass media; risk and emergency events; and, finally, uncertainty. The latter is present both within the communication process provided by the media and in risk and emergency events.
Communication and the communication process itself highlight how it is not only the method of transmitting the message that is relevant and central, but also the nature of the message itself and its content. In the communication process, every element is important in order to create a relationship and reach the recipients of the message.
Communication plays a central role in the dynamics of risk and emergency: firstly, because the media are a source of immediate, accurate information; secondly, because it enables the prevention and protection of the population during phenomena; and finally, because it determines the pervasiveness of the subjective experience that individuals have during events [1]. Communication is a source of wealth in the construction of knowledge that allows for the creation of an interpretative space of reality that is experienced with others [2]. Communication, therefore, being the foundation of knowledge, allows people to understand their surroundings with the aim of constructing a representation of the world in order to build their own identity and future. The aim is to inform the whole of civil society, either through communication by an expert or directly with the institutions and the government, about the risk situation that is being experienced.
In this contribution, informing means that the population, being educated through a process of communication and training about the events, their effects, their impacts and the ways in which they manifest themselves, becomes more aware and internalises what it has learned. Education and training on risk and emergency phenomena are essential for bringing about cultural change and creating a praxis [1][3][4]. The educational process with regard to such events must be carried out for all age groups and levels of education. It should start in schools, teaching knowledge about these phenomena and involving all the key social actors for social change, namely families and the various associations present in the area. Communication is complemented by training and educational programmes [5][6].
The analysis of communication processes is important for structuring and determining cultural and social change [7] aimed at creating a culture of communication around alerts and news. Being culturally accustomed to following a communication process means being aware of the processes and management of a risk and an emergency, as can be seen, for example, on the Japan Disaster Prevention Information website (https://www.bousai.metro.tokyo.lg.jp/index.html, accessed on 2 October 2025), where it is possible to download not only guides but also all the information needed to prevent and safeguard life from risk and emergency events. Understanding how risk and emergency communication takes place and what the differences are between the concepts of risk and emergency from a social point of view is fundamental to understanding the concept from a cultural and communicative point of view.
Risk and emergency [7][8][9][10][11] are two different concepts, despite the fact that in the common view they are two overlapping concepts. Their communication reflects their definition and the representation of this phenomenon. In risk communication, the central element is the dissemination of a principle of education on emergency procedures and the education of the safeguarding dynamics that must be activated. In emergency communication, it is essential to create a rapid alarm system that allows evacuation and safety procedures to be followed. At this stage, the dynamics planned and activated during the risk phase are expressed. Risk and emergency communication are interconnected because the former expresses what must be put into practice in the latter.
Individuals construct social reality within cultural systems through representations that take shape in communication. In digital communication, these representations then find a place to be disseminated. The representation of reality, with respect to events and their manifestation, is fundamental because it establishes the way in which the social system understands communication and the ways in which it responds to events. Knowledge of the phenomenon and its manifestation allows us to understand its modalities, its manifestation and its possible implementations. Furthermore, in the knowledge that events are possible, how to instruct and educate the population and how to communicate such events in order to prevent their effects and future impacts.
Today, the media are the communication system that allows us to acquire all forms of knowledge.
Digital society cannot do without communication systems that perform the main functions of information transmission, not least because the forms of meaningful interaction between individuals within society do not always follow a linear logic.
Communication is an inexhaustible source of wealth for the acquisition and construction of knowledge; it also allows us to construct the interpretative space of the meanings of reality.
Communication processes are the foundation of knowledge that allows individuals to understand their surroundings with the aim of constructing a representation of the world within which to build their identity and plan their life path. This is the context for risk and emergency communication.
These are two types of communication that have different purposes and are distinguished by their content, methods and aims. Risk communication differs from emergency communication in its narrative, methods of information and dissemination. In terms of how communication works, both follow a defined and pre-established communicative approach.
The process of communicating both risk and emergency can be defined as an intentional exchange of scientific information between stakeholders regarding the impacts they have on society. Stakeholders include government agencies, companies, manufacturing firms, associations, the media, scientists, professional organisations, public interest groups and individuals. The information concerns events that produce or potentially produce negative effects on the exposed population, courses of action, decisions taken by institutions, and the management of such events. This form of communication, when well planned and well executed, and fully integrated into every stage of the response to these events, can provide support (both individual and collective) by ensuring full awareness and better management. Through communication, it is possible to provide information about these types of events, but also about their evolution.
Understanding the nature of a risk and/or emergency event can help communicators prevent problems and respond to them effectively. It can also help to anticipate the information needs of the media, stakeholders and citizens. This type of communication aims to inform about the urgency of action, but also about the impacts, progress and benefits of the event. According to communication experts, citizens must be informed about every aspect [11] in order to ensure their protection and awareness. Communication enables knowledge and the dissemination of the phenomenon and its management. The greater the accuracy and propagation of the event, the greater its resonance.
The case studies presented below will attempt to show the importance of the preparation of communication plans and their implementation by governments, institutions and civil society [12].
Knowledge and dissemination of information about events could help to reduce the gap between members of the social system, the so-called “laypeople” and “experts” [13]. This equality is at the heart of the communication process, as it means being able to convey information about events to the entire population using the same linguistic code. Communication involves citizen participation, which not only makes citizens feel involved, but also restores their trust in institutions and experts and focuses on when, by whom, to whom and under what conditions communication should take place. Participation can therefore be guaranteed by the circulation of information, as this allows for its dissemination and awareness of various events (whether risks or emergencies).
According to the analysis, the communication process specifically follows five processes: communicate to; communicate to/with; communicating what; communicate how; communicate when [1]. Five processes that indicate how communication is managed, namely: the communicator (expert, institutions, government); the timing of communication (urgent, unexpected and planned); phases (ex ante, in itinere, ex post); how to communicate (mass media, social media, bulletins, signals, alarms); purpose of the message (the text of the message); method of the message (how the text of the message should be transmitted).
A communication plan designed to create awareness aimed at protecting individuals and creating a culture of prevention and management.
It should be emphasised that risk situations and emergency situations are very different: in the former, the focus is on precaution and prevention, through information and communication to raise awareness and disseminate news of a possible event; in the latter, on the other hand, the focus is on rescue and immediate safety measures. In fact, there is a shift from a situation of “being ready for”, which corresponds to the risk phase, to “having the readiness and competence to”, which corresponds to the emergency phase. In a risk situation, it is necessary to be able to plan, organise and prepare plans that can be used in an emergency. This is the phase in which multi-level communication plans, guidelines, educational programmes for the population and safeguard plans are implemented and planned. During the risk phase, alert plans and various communication methods are also prepared, as it is communication that determines and modifies the state of emergency [14].
Emergencies and their management depend on communication—understood as a social process of knowledge sharing that involves simplifying reality and the social context—and on different channels of information. Understanding how communication works and what is communicated allows safeguard plans to be put in place. In communication education, it is essential to be able to convey all the steps necessary for the prevention of a phenomenon, so as to prevent any negative consequences and also ensure the protection of the entire population.
Communication and information are necessary elements in making citizens aware of both the imminent and future situations. The aim is not to make all citizens experts, but to make them aware and, above all, informed. To paraphrase Schütz (1946) [15], a “well-informed citizen” is someone who, through information, is able to form and construct their own reasonably founded opinion based on the actual context of the event they are experiencing [16]. In the digital society, especially during risk and emergency events, knowledge no longer comes from a single source but from multiple sources (media and social media), which are often, at the same time, a cause of confusion and unreliability. While the multiplicity of information and communication represents greater dissemination and reach, it also leads to media displacement resulting from the replacement of traditional media (press, television, radio) by more modern and widely used media (web and social networks). This has led to a shift in the communication process and the need to spread a new culture of communication [17].
Risk and emergency communication have not been considered as completely separate fields, so much so that, scientifically, everything falls under risk communication [15][16][17][18][19]. Communication for risk and emergency phenomena is now partly covered by the Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication (CERC) model, officially recognised as a communication tool for these types of events. Following 11 September 2001, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, USA, developed this model [20], also considering variables such as space and time (here and now) in which to prepare the analysis of events. They foresee the need for a plan in the first 24/48 h, in which the fundamental values are: Be first. Be right. Be credible [21]. The work seeks to draw attention to the fact that in the risk phase, it is necessary to work on preparing action plans for the emergency phase. These plans include, as mentioned above, communication and its phases. The emergency plans are implemented and learned by the population through information and education processes. The first few hours after an event (which we can classify as an emergency) are crucial because they are chaotic, uncertain and stressful, and it is during these hours that it is necessary to intervene with the safeguarding measures learned during the risk phase. Planning the initial phase is crucial because it can influence the subsequent evolution of these phenomena. Preparing the plan allows events to be organised according to a logical process of division into phases. Consider what happened in Thailand and Burma in March 2025 during the devastating earthquake or in Italy with the earthquake in the city of L’Aquila [1], which led to legal proceedings against scientists and administrators for their alleged failure to communicate the correct level of risk, or the recent communication of the health emergency, which highlights how important the issue of risk and emergency communication is in the management, social organisation and reproduction of a culture of effective communication in dealing with such phenomena [22].
Communication in the case of risk is a process of exchanging information between stakeholders on the nature, extent, importance or control of a risk, regardless of its origin. It should help the various actors (citizens, politicians, scientists) to make timely decisions to reduce the negative impacts of such an event, including the potential loss of human life. At the same time, communication plans should be implemented during the emergency, such as alarms, sounds and specific instructions to follow. These elements must be expressed in educational processes [22][23].
Equally, communicating and communicating well during an emergency means being able to control and manage the social reactions of citizens. Communication methods should be activated that seek to help the population. In fact, communication in emergency situations seeks to immediately inform and reassure the various parties affected by the events, in particular the population, who are frightened and distraught by the grief and loss caused by natural disasters or conflicts. This assistance seeks to be present before the immediate emergency (ex ante), during (in itinere) and after (ex post).
The Table 1 below presents what could be an organisation of risk and emergency communication, examining the various elements that characterise communication management. As can be seen, there are some changes, particularly with regard to: Timing; How to Communicate; Purpose of the Message and Method of the Message. Emergency communication is essential for the safety of people and therefore focuses on urgent and immediate timing; communications are issued in the first phase by alarms, social media and the mass media, and subsequently in the following phases by bulletins and newspapers with continuous news updates. In fact, the purpose of the message is to alert, safeguard, indicate, explain and empower those who lead the actions and the decision-making process. Finally, the message must be simple, credible and consistent; it must be repeated, come from the same sources, be specific and clear, and finally offer guidelines for behaviour and action.
Table 1. Risk and emergency communication organisation.
| Communication Management | Risk Communication | Emergency Communication |
|---|---|---|
| Communicator | Expert, institution, government | Expert, institution, government |
| Timing | Urgent | Urgent and safeguarding the unexpected situation |
| Phases | Ex ante In itinere Ex post |
Ex ante In itinere Ex post |
| How to communicate | Mass media Social Signals Bulletins Alerts (in the first phase of the emergency) |
Alarms Alerts Mass media Social Signals Bulletins Continuous news |
| Purpose of the message | Explain, persuade, educate, train and empower decision-making process and competent authorities |
Alert, safeguard, advise Explain and empower those who lead actions and decision-making |
| Method of communication | Simple, credible and consistent Be repeated Come from multiple credible sources Be specific Offer a course of action that can be carried out |
Simple, credible and consistent Be repeated Come from the same sources Be specific and clear Offer guidelines for behaviour and action |
Source: Author’s elaboration. Some elements taken from the report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [11].
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/encyclopedia5040183
References
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