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Gender and Digital Technologies: History
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Subjects: Sociology
Contributor: Eduarda Ferreira , Maria João Silva

This entry explores the multifaceted intersections of gender and digital technologies, offering a comprehensive analysis of how structural inequalities are reproduced, contested, and transformed in digital contexts. It is structured into six interrelated sections that collectively address key dimensions of gendered digital contexts. It begins by addressing the gender digital divide, particularly in the Global South, emphasizing disparities in access, literacy, and sociocultural constraints. The second section examines gendered labor in the tech industry, highlighting persistent inequalities in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education, employment, and platform-based work. The third part focuses on gender representation in digital spaces, revealing how algorithmic and platform design perpetuate biases. The fourth section discusses gender bias in AI and disinformation, underscoring the systemic nature of digital inequalities. This is followed by an analysis of online gender-based violence, particularly its impact on marginalized communities and participation in digital life. The final section considers the potentials and limitations of digital activism in advancing gender justice. These sections collectively argue for an intersectional, inclusive, and justice-oriented approach to technology policy and design, calling for coordinated global efforts to create equitable digital futures.

  • gender digital divide
  • gender representation
  • digital gender justice
Gender inequality remains a persistent global issue, manifesting across multiple dimensions—including education, employment, mobility, and access to resources. While globalization and migration have contributed to shifting gender roles in some contexts, they have not eliminated deeply embedded structural inequalities, particularly for women in the Global South [1]. These disparities increasingly extend into the digital realm, where unequal access to technology and digital skills has given rise to what is commonly referred to as the gender digital divide. This divide reflects and reinforces broader patterns of exclusion, limiting women’s and marginalized gender groups’ opportunities to participate fully in digital economies, education, and civic life. Understanding the digital divide through a gender lens requires examining not only disparities in access but also the social, cultural, and economic barriers that shape digital inclusion.
The gender digital divide remains a pressing issue, particularly in the Global South, where women and marginalized gender groups face significant barriers to digital access and literacy. These disparities are influenced by economic constraints, cultural norms, and infrastructural challenges, reinforcing existing gender inequalities [2][3].
Worldwide, 70% of men use the internet, while only 65% of women do, resulting in approximately 244 million fewer women online in 2023 [4]. The disparity is more pronounced in regions with low internet usage, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, where only about 30% of women use the internet compared to 40% of men [4].
In low-income countries, the disparity is even more pronounced: around 90% of adolescent girls and young women aged 15–24 are offline, compared to 78% of males in the same age group. This gap is especially significant in South Asia, with a 27 percentage point difference favoring adolescent boys and young men [5].
Mobile phones are the primary means of internet access in many low- and middle-income countries. However, women are 15% less likely than men to access the internet through mobile devices, with the gap widening to 31% in South Asia and 32%in Sub-Saharan Africa [6].
The high cost of mobile data further exacerbates the divide. In developing countries, due to high costs and connectivity challenges, 45% of women entrepreneurs do not have consistent access to the internet. Even though 92% own smartphones, broader internet access remains costly. Safety concerns persist, with 57% facing online harassment [7].
Beyond access, digital literacy remains a significant barrier. In many low- and middle-income countries, women more often than men report a lack of skills as a barrier to internet use. This skills gap limits women’s ability to fully participate in the digital economy [8][9].
In Sub-Saharan Africa, the lack of digital skills among women is compounded by limited educational opportunities and cultural practices that restrict women’s engagement with technology. Targeted interventions, such as digital literacy programs and microfinance initiatives, have shown promise in empowering women economically [3]. However, beyond digital skills and education, there are other structural factors that account for the gender disparity in internet use. These include the affordability of mobile phones and internet services, as well as women’s lower employment rates, which limit their financial autonomy and ability to invest in technology [10]. Additionally, women’s higher domestic burden—as primary caregivers within the family and often within the wider community—means they have less time and flexibility to engage regularly with the internet [10].
Cultural norms and gender roles significantly influence women’s access to digital technologies. In some societies, women face restrictions on technology use due to perceptions of appropriateness or disapproval from family members. These sociocultural factors contribute to the persistent gender digital divide [2].
Addressing the gender digital divide requires comprehensive policy interventions. Strategies include investing in digital infrastructure, implementing gender-sensitive policies, and promoting digital literacy among women and girls. Initiatives like the Global Digital Compact aim to empower digital inclusion and bridge the divide [11].
In Africa, programs such as Kenya’s Women Enterprise Fund and Nigeria’s digital skills training initiatives have demonstrated success in enhancing women’s digital engagement. Scaling these programs and ensuring their sustainability are crucial for long-term impact [3].
The gender digital divide is a multifaceted issue that perpetuates existing inequalities. While progress has been made, significant disparities remain, particularly in the Global South. Addressing this divide necessitates coordinated efforts across sectors to ensure equitable access to digital technologies and opportunities for all genders.
Accessibility is also a significant concern. While digital tools can offer greater autonomy and participation for disabled individuals, many platforms still fail to adequately meet accessibility standards. Intersectional disability justice frameworks emphasize that the digital divide must be understood not only in terms of technical access but also in terms of social inclusion and representation. Disabled people who also belong to other marginalized groups often face compounded challenges in navigating and shaping digital environments [12].

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/encyclopedia5030111

References

  1. Ullah, A.; Alkaff, S.; Lee, S.; Chattoraj, D.; Ferdous, J. Globalization and Migration: The Great Gender Equalizer? J. Int. Women’s Stud. 2023, 25, 2.
  2. Acilar, A.; Sæbø, Ø. Towards Understanding the Gender Digital Divide: A Systematic Literature Review. Glob. Knowl. Mem. Commun. 2023, 72, 233–249.
  3. Bhattacharya, S.; Gatobu, C.K.; Onuoha, R. Bridging the Gender Digital Divide: Africa’s Imperatives; ORF Special Report; Observer Research Foundation: New Delhi, India, 2024.
  4. International Telecommunication Union. Measuring Digital Development—Facts and Figures 2023. Available online: https://www.itu.int/itu-d/reports/statistics/facts-figures-2023/ (accessed on 9 June 2025).
  5. Avanesian, G.; Pandolfelli, L.; Mizunoya, S.; Mishra, S.; Kelly, M. Children’s Fund Bridging the Gender Digital Divide: Challenges and an Urgent Call for Action for Equitable Digital Skills Development; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2023.
  6. Jeffrie, N. The Mobile Gender Gap Report 2024; GSMA: London, UK, 2024.
  7. Cherie Blair Foundation for Women. Empowered or Undermined? Women Entrepreneurs & the Digital Economy. 2024. Available online: https://cherieblairfoundation.org/what-we-do/research/2024-audit/ (accessed on 11 June 2025).
  8. Gupta, M.; Kiran, R. Digital Exclusion of Women: A Systematic Review. Glob. Knowl. Mem. Commun. 2025, 74, 938–957.
  9. Raihan, M.M.H.; Subroto, S.; Chowdhury, N.; Koch, K.; Ruttan, E.; Turin, T.C. Dimensions and Barriers for Digital (in)Equity and Digital Divide: A Systematic Integrative Review. Digit. Transform. Soc. 2024, 4, 111–127.
  10. Williams, E.; Vaisanen, H.; Padmadas, S.S. Women’s Economic Empowerment in Sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Cross-National Population Data. Demogr. Res. 2022, 47, 415–452.
  11. United Nations. Our Common Agenda–Report of the Secretary-General; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 2021.
  12. Nectoux, S.; Magee, L.; Soldatic, K. Sensing Technologies, Digital Inclusion, and Disability Diversity. J. Comput.-Mediat. Commun. 2023, 28, zmad026.
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