Over the last 50 years, Irish-immersion (IM) education has experienced remarkable growth in both the Republic of Ireland (RoI) and Northern Ireland (NI). The aim of this form of education is for students to gain proficiency in the national or heritage language, Irish, at no cost to their first language development [1,2,3]. IM schools can be located in Gaeltacht areas or outside of the Gaeltacht. In these schools, all curriculum subjects are taught through the medium of Irish, except for English and modern foreign languages [4]. It has been found that most students attending IM schools outside of the Gaeltacht come from homes where English is their home language [5,6]. The Gaeltacht refers to regions in Ireland where the Irish language is the primary spoken language of daily life [7]. These areas are mostly located along the western seaboard in counties such as Donegal, Mayo, Galway, and Kerry, as well as smaller areas in counties Cork, Meath, and Waterford. Recent census data, however, suggest that there has been an increase in cultural and linguistic diversity in these schools over time and that now only 66% (n = 65,156) of the Gaeltacht population speak Irish [8].

In the early 1970s, there were only a handful of IM schools outside the Gaeltacht, but by 2024, this number had grown to 256 IM primary schools. The total number of students in IM primary and post-primary education has now surpassed 66,000. In NI, the sector has expanded significantly from fewer than 500 students in the early 1980s to over 7000 in 2024 [5,6]. This increase represents a broader shift towards bilingual education, supported by language planning initiatives, government policies, and research highlighting the cognitive and linguistic benefits of immersion education [1,2,3]. The rapid growth of IM education reflects both a societal push to revitalise the Irish language and a growing recognition of the advantages of bilingual learning [9].

At present there are 153 IM primary schools outside of the Gaeltacht and there are 103 within the Gaeltacht areas [10]. There are also 35 IM primary schools in NI (see Table 1). The total estimated number of students enrolled in these schools is 48,684. Outside of the Gaeltacht in the RoI, there are 47 IM post-primary schools, and an estimated 11,951 students enrolled. There are five IM post-primary schools in Northern Ireland with 1675 students enrolled. There were 29 Gaeltacht post-primary schools with approximately 3832 students enrolled.

This entry provides a discussion and analysis of the prevalence and categories of SEN in these schools across the island of Ireland from articles published in peer review journals and funded reports. In the RoI, this data includes IM schools in Gaeltacht areas and outside of the Gaeltacht. It provides a discussion and analysis of the trends in SEN prevalence over the past two decades in IM primary and post-primary schools. The regional disparities, for example, comparing Gaeltacht and IM schools outside of the Gaeltacht, as well as differences between IM and English-medium education sectors are discussed. Following this, recommendations are made for future special education provision in these schools in the areas of policy and practice. The overview provided may be of interest to immersion education contexts internationally, as limited statistical information on SEN prevalence for immersion education contexts is available internationally.

For the purposes of this entry, SEN refers to a condition where a student requires additional support to access education due to a disability, learning difficulty, or other developmental challenges [11]. The Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs (EPSEN) Act 2004 [11] defines SEN as a “restriction in capacity to participate in and benefit from education” due to an enduring physical, sensory, mental health, intellectual, or learning disability. SEN can include a wide range of needs, such as dyslexia, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD), and speech and language disorders. In schools in the RoI and NI, support for students with SEN is provided through additional teaching resources, special education teachers, special needs assistants/classroom assistants and access to specialised assessments and interventions [11,12].

The Irish education system aims to provide an inclusive model, ensuring that children with SEN can participate fully in mainstream or special education settings, depending on their needs [13,14,15,16]. The inclusive model of education in the RoI aims to ensure that students with SEN can access quality education alongside their peers in mainstream schools whenever possible. This approach aligns with the EPSEN Act 2004 [11], which promotes the right of children with SEN to be educated in mainstream settings with appropriate support where possible. In NI, the education system also focuses on educating all students, including those with SEN and disabilities, in mainstream educational settings where appropriate [13]. This approach is grounded in various legislative frameworks and policies aimed at promoting equality and accessibility within the education system [17].

In both the RoI and NI, students can be educated in mainstream schools, special classes attached to mainstream schools, or special schools based on their needs [18,19]. In mainstream schools, students with SEN are typically educated in classes with their peers and access additional support such as additional teaching support, a special needs assistant/classroom assistant, or assistive technology. Special classes for students with a range of diagnoses, have a lower student-teacher ratio and have access to special needs assistants/classroom assistants in the classroom. A small number of IM schools have special classes, with only 2 IM schools in NI and 33 schools in the RoI with these classes [20]. In both the RoI and NI, there are no special classes available through the medium of Irish for students with a diagnosis of specific speech and language delay or dyslexia [21,22]. More funding should be made available by the government to allow special classes for students with these SEN to open in IM schools; this funding should cover premises, teaching resources and teacher education. It is important that the practices in place in these classes would consider the nuances of SEN and bilingualism/immersion education. In the special classes available in English-medium schools, students are often exempt from the study of Irish due to their learning difficulties [23]. When there are no places available in a special class or special school, it is recommended that children attend a mainstream setting and receive additional teaching support there [21,22]. Special schools provide education to children and young people from age 4 to 18 with a range of SEN and they deliver both the primary and post-primary school curriculum [24]. In the RoI there is one IM special school located in a Gaeltacht area. Unfortunately, in NI, there are no IM special schools.

Primary education in the RoI is designed to provide a broad and balanced curriculum for children aged approximately 4 to 12 years. It consists of an eight-year cycle, including junior (age 4–5) and senior infants (age 5–6) followed by six class levels [25,26]. The curriculum, set by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA), emphasises literacy, numeracy, social, and personal development, alongside subjects such as science, geography, history, and the arts [27].

Post-primary education in the RoI typically begins at the age of 12 and continues until the age of 18 [25,26,27]. It is divided into two cycles: Junior Cycle and Senior Cycle. Junior Cycle education typically lasts for three years, from the ages of 12 to 15. Its main aim is to provide students with a broad, balanced curriculum [28]. There is a focus on the development of key skills such as communicating, teamwork, and problem-solving. Following completion of the Junior Cycle and the Junior Certificate Examination, and before commencing the two-year Senior Cycle (typically at age 15/16), some students undertake Transition Year [29]. This is an optional one-year programme in the Irish education system designed to provide students with an opportunity to experience a broad range of subjects and activities outside the regular curriculum that promote personal, social, vocational, and educational development. The Senior Cycle in Irish post-primary schools typically lasts for two years, usually from the ages of 15/16 to 17/18 years old [28]. Most students at Senior Cycle level take the Leaving Certificate Examination, usually at the age of 17–18.

The primary education system in NI is structured to provide foundational education for children aged 4 to 11 [30]. It is divided into seven-year groups, from Primary 1 (P1, age 5) to Primary 7 (P7, age 11). The Northern Ireland Curriculum [31] encompasses the following topics: language and literacy (English and Irish in IM schools), mathematics, science, geography, history, personal development and mutual understanding, the arts (music, drama, art), physical education, and religious education (often aligned with the school’s ethos).

Post-primary education in NI typically begins at the age of 11 and continues until the age of 16 or 18 [32,33]. It is divided into two key stages: Key Stage 3 (KS3) and Key Stage 4 (KS4) [33]. Key Stage 3 covers ages 11 to 14 and is roughly the equivalent to the Junior Cycle in post-primary education in the RoI. Key Stage 4 covers ages 14 to 16 and is roughly equivalent to the Senior Cycle in post-primary education in the RoI. The curriculum at Key Stage 3 is broad and balanced, covering a range of subjects including English, mathematics, science, history, geography, modern languages, physical education, and others. At Key Stage 4, students work towards qualifications such as the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) or vocational qualifications such as Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC). GCSEs are the most common qualifications undertaken by students in NI at the end of Key Stage 4 [34]. They are usually taken in a range of subjects, with students typically taking between 7 and 10 GCSEs. In addition to GCSEs, students may also have the option to take vocational qualifications such as BTECs, which are equivalent to GCSEs but focus on practical, work-related skills.