Mine Closure and Ecological Reclamation: History
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Contributor:
Hamza Zine
,
Abdelhak El Mansour
,
Rachid Hakkou
,
Eleni G. Papazoglou
,
Mostafa Benzaazoua

Faced with the ongoing energy transition and the escalating fragility of our natural ecosystems, ecological reclamation emerges as an imperative necessity. 

  • restoration
  • revegetation
  • phytoremediation
  • soil pollution
  • heavy metals

1. Introduction

From the inception of the industrial era, there has been a continuous enhancement in the material prosperity of individuals, driven by the swift growth of the global economy [1]. However, this progress has been accompanied by pressing challenges, including global warming, environmental pollution, habitat fragmentation, and a frequent loss of biological diversity [2]. Nowadays, natural ecosystems are facing severe degradation on a global scale, leading to the breakdown of their functions, a scarcity of natural resources, and a significant drop in ecosystem-based services [3]. The issues related to the materialization and de-naturalization of natural ecosystems represent a considerable threat to the living environment of human beings, society, and global economy sustainability. In response to these challenges, organizations, institutions, and societies, both in the public and private sector, are under increasing pressure to take measures that mitigate their negative impact on the surrounding environment [4][5]. This includes implementing sustainable practices, reducing pollution, managing waste production, and implementing a circular economy [6][7][8][9]. Organizations, institutions, and societies need to go beyond compliance with environmental regulations and actively pursue strategies and actions that contribute to the reclamation of ecological ecosystems and an ecological energy transition.
Today’s practices of corporate sustainability management are not just driven by economic considerations, but also by a growing recognition of the ethical responsibilities that organizations have towards the natural ecosystems and society [10][11]. They are realizing that their actions have consequences beyond their immediate financial gains and are seeking to align their business practices with environmental stewardship [12][13].
This shift towards corporate sustainability management is driven by a combination of factors that include scientific insights about the impact of human activities on ecosystems, and economic and social demands from consumers, employees, investors, and activists for a responsible environment. In this light, mine closure and ecological reclamation refer to the processes and practices involved in recovering and restoring abandoned or depleted mining areas to minimize the environmental impacts of this industry [14][15][16]. This not only helps to mitigate the environmental impacts of mining but also ensures the sustainable reuse of the mined land. Furthermore, mine closure and ecological reclamation are crucial for achieving sustainable development in the mining industry [17][18].
The reclamation of ecological functions can stimulate soil formation and enhance biological activity on the surface of disposal sites [19]. Mine closure using ecological reclamation is not just important for mitigating the environmental impacts of mining, but also for fulfilling our moral responsibility to restore the land to its original state, better state, or substitute condition. Additionally, ecological reclamation is essential for ensuring the long-term productivity and sustainability of the post-mining land [14][20]. The process of implementing land reclamation in mining areas has been hindered by a variety of challenges. These include the variability of mining areas, which requires specific land reclamation schemes tailored to each mine [21].

2. Mine Closure and Ecological Reclamation

Ecosystems have a dual role, not only do they provide a wide range of primary materials and products directly exploited by humans, but they also perform a multitude of essential functions. These roles include storing carbon, regulating the climate, purifying pollutants, preserving soil and water, preventing wind erosion, and maintaining biodiversity as well [22]. As such, ecosystems ensure the long-term sustainability of human communities and the economy. As mentioned in the introduction, the energy transition, the rapid development of industry, and the growth of electronic waste volume require more industrialization and production at all levels, including the mining sector, that lead to ecosystem degradation [23]. Such degradation and distribution oscillate around one or several aspects of ecosystem services. At the same time, academic research on ecological reclamation has increased significantly over the past ten years, with significant positive trends in environmental policies.
The findings reveal a consistent upward trajectory in the number of articles within the field of mine closure and ecological reclamation, a trend that has been steadfastly increasing since 2005. Remarkably, after this pivotal year, mine closure and ecological reclamation attracted heightened attention, fostering an accelerated development in this research domain.
Several theories can be put forward to explain this renewed interest. These include the growing awareness of ecological issues, the implementation of sustainable development goals, and an increasing sense of environmental responsibility within industries, among other factors. Additionally, the emergence of remediation techniques has played a pivotal role. These encompass diverse approaches, ranging from physical methods like soil washing, surface capping, soil replacement, encapsulation, and nano-remediation, to chemical remediation techniques involving the introduction of reactive substances, vitrification, chemical fixation, and electrokinetics [24]. Moreover, biological technologies, known as phytoremediation techniques, have gained prominence. This approach leverages the innate capabilities of plants and microorganisms to absorb, break down, and transform pollutants [25].
The co-occurrence of keywords and the pattern of development of this theme also show that the four main keywords in this area are bioremediation, soil, heavy metals, and recovery. The main new directions in research include mine water treatment, rare earths removal, cadmium bioavailability, marginal land reclamation, and mining land revitalization. In the future, it is imperative and beneficial to strengthen collaborative efforts among institutions around the world, promoting comprehensive research on ecological reclamation through a multifaceted approach.
Asian nations, with China at the forefront, along with the United States of America and Australia, have spearheaded advancements in the field of mine closure and ecological reclamation. Their leadership is attributable not only to their pioneering research but also to the extensive and synergistic partnerships between academia and industry. As well, their active involvement underlines the crucial role of the academic world in advancing research in the field of mine closure and ecological reclamation. Presently, a substantial disparity exists between the state of mine closure and ecological reclamation in developing countries compared to their more developed counterparts. Consequently, it holds great significance in bolstering international cooperation to facilitate the sound progress of ecologically sustainable mining practices [26].
However, most phytoremediation studies, particularly in Morocco, are limited to screening the phytoremediation capacities of plants growing in or around mining areas and do not go as far as using the most capable plant species to revegetate land after mining toward their reclamation. In the future, the research scope of mine closure and ecological reclamation should also be transformed from the perspective of screening and impact evaluations to concrete field solutions involving multiple methods and techniques, especially in African countries [27][28]. Indeed, mine closure and ecological reclamation extend beyond their ecological and environmental aspects; they encompasses significant social and economic dimensions. This entails considerations such as economic losses, financial investments, reclamation expenses, and the management of resources and development [23]. The integration of conceptual frameworks and research methodologies from both the natural sciences and humanities into mine closure and ecological restoration projects is a growing area of focus [29]. Consequently, mine closure and ecological reclamation are not only scientific endeavors but also encompass essential social and economic perspectives.
Multidisciplinary research in the field of mine closure and ecological reclamation is still in its very nascent stages, particularly within the African context [17]. While the existing findings have been promising in terms of characterizing environmental issues and exploring various methods and techniques, there remains much work to be done.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/mining3040044

References

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