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Key determinants in climbing performance, and thus those present in elite athletes, include improved climbing efficiency, greater ability to apply maximum force or finger and palm pressure resistance, and increased arm locking strength. Additionally, it has been observed that those who can apply higher and more consistent loads experience better muscle oxygenation and have greater flexibility and lateral foot reach. Climbing performance is the result of factors that can be enhanced through training.
- climbing
- performance
- strength
- psychology
- technique
1. Introduction
The fundamental principle of sustainability implies that choices and actions in the present should not jeopardize the ability to preserve or enhance the quality of life in the future [1]. It is a complex system consisting of four dimensions: social, economic, environmental, and political/institutional, characterized by the interactions within each of these dimensions [2].
Engaging with nature through activities like ecotourism and outdoor recreation raises awareness about the importance of conserving natural resources and protecting historical and cultural sites. This fosters a positive attitude towards the environment and its preservation [3].
There is a growing concern about the impacts of sports activities on the natural environment, emphasizing the urgent need for proper management to minimize negative consequences and move towards a more sustainable approach [4,5].
Participating in activities in natural settings leads to an appreciation of these places and motivates people to maintain physical fitness to engage in such activities, whether sporadic or for health benefits [6].
Climbing is a sport that involves phases of movement between moments of rest, and its success relies on the climber’s ability to move fluidly between these resting points [8]. It is an increasingly popular recreational and competitive sport. For its preparation and training, it is important to understand the anthropometric and physiological factors, study the body’s responses to training, and apply precise stimuli, as these insights will enable the specific training focus for climbing disciplines: difficulty, bouldering, and speed. Climbing is physiologically unique in the need for sustained and intermittent isometric muscle contractions for upward propulsion [9].
Attempting to make an initial approach toward understanding the performance factors in sport climbing, the authors [10] established a model composed of six parameters or factors: coordination and technique, tactical aspects, psychological aspects, physical aspects, environmental conditions, and external conditions for the climber.
Recent research has focused on various areas within the field of sport climbing. Some of the investigated topics include anthropometry [11,12], muscle fatigue [13,14,15,16], energy expenditure [10,11,12,13], the relationship between heart rate and maximal oxygen consumption [17,18,19,20], intermittent isometric endurance [12,21], reoxygenation of finger and hand flexor muscles [22,23], technical–tactical aspects of climbing [17,24,25,26], and psychophysiological aspects related to climbing, such as problem-solving skills, movement sequence memory, climbers’ anxiety levels, or specific stress management training, which can be critical discriminators of performance in sport climbing [19,27,28,29,30].
Furthermore, an athlete’s skill and precision can be determinants of performance and can be defined as opportunities for action in a sports performance environment with reference to the individual [31]. Before applying force to a hold, climbers may make small adjustments based on how they perceive the hold and their capabilities. This exploratory behavior can be important for improving the amount of friction that can be exerted on the hold [26].
In the same vein, in the pursuit of greater efficiency in climbing and prolonging the time until fatigue sets in, climbers aim to transfer maximum weight onto their feet. This results in energy savings in the upper body, especially in the forearms, which are the primary culprits of fatigue while climbing [16,21].
Climbing is a sport with high demands for strength, but numerous authors have also emphasized the importance of the relationship between this factor and technical–tactical factors. It has been suggested that climbers with higher technical–tactical levels have better optimization of climbing rhythm [32], better positioning of their center of gravity, and a grip strength application that generates more friction on holds [26]. This allows them to shorten contact phases with holds, saving energy expenditure and isometric work [17], which promotes higher performance. Additionally, flexibility has been identified as one of the key physical abilities, along with strength, that determines success in climbing [8,11,19,23,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33].
2. Performance Factors in Sport Climbing
The determining performance factors in climbing, and therefore those present in elite athletes, are better climbing economy [17], those who apply more maximum finger or palmar pressure strength, as well as greater arm locking strength [21,39,41,45,46,53,54], those who apply higher and more consistent loads [42], those with better muscular oxygenation [22,43], and those with better flexibility or lateral foot reach [8]. Therefore, climbing performance is a result of multiple trainable factors [11].
Sport climbing, whether indoors or outdoors, is an increasingly popular recreational and competitive activity practiced worldwide. The inclusion of sport climbing in the 2020 Tokyo Olympics, with three sub-disciplines, lead climbing, speed climbing, and bouldering, provides an opportunity for the sport to continue growing [56]. Consequently, research related to this sport has increased, as athletes can benefit from advancements in the scientific understanding of performance determinants in sport climbing [11]. Sport climbing involves specific movements and techniques [55] and is associated with various performance factors due to the unique nature of the sport.
It has identified crucial factors that determine performance in climbing, which have also been observed in elite climbers. These factors include optimal climbing economy, as seen in a previous study [17], as well as the ability to generate maximum finger and palm strength, along with arm locking strength, supported by previous research [16,21,22,39,41,45,53,54]. Handgrip strength, as analyzed in [46], is also a significant factor. Additionally, the authors of [57] explain that hand–arm strength and endurance, along with body fat percentage and climbing experience, can predict climbing performance satisfactorily.
Similarly, it has been observed that climbers categorized as elite athletes are capable of applying higher and more consistent loads during their ascent, as evidenced in [42]. Additionally, it has been highlighted that these athletes have better muscular oxygenation [22,43] and greater flexibility and lateral range of motion in the lower body segments, as confirmed in [8]. As demonstrated in [58], climbers with more experience are able to spend less time and force on holds and increase the coefficient of friction on necessary footholds.
Regarding anthropometry or body composition, the dimensions of body segments in relation to climbing performance have been studied [12], although some authors suggest that anthropometry has a small impact on climbing performance [11]. Some studies have also emphasized the importance of hip [8,46] and shoulder mobility [11,54].
The technical–tactical aspects of climbing, such as decision making, strategies used by climbers during their ascent, and the ability to visually inspect a route before climbing it, can represent essential components of performance optimization. With shorter stops, only expert climbers benefited more from previewing the route [52]. Furthermore, the climber’s ability to adapt their focus or perception of the hold before applying force or movement seems to be another important factor in the ascent [31]. This exploratory behavior has been identified as an essential element for optimizing the friction that can be generated on holds [26].
On the other hand, there are other aspects that can influence performance enhancement in sport climbing tests. Energy drinks have demonstrated their effectiveness in physical tests across various sports such as cycling, athletics, triathlon, or rowing [59].
This was also evidenced in sport climbing, where nine non-professional climbers underwent three different tests: a maximum speed pull-up, a series of pull-ups to exhaustion, and a climbing test that was repeated on two occasions [60].
The results demonstrated that with caffeine intake, there was a 19% increase in power in the maximum speed pull-up test, a 13.5% increase in the maximum number of pull-ups to exhaustion, and a decrease in the time invested in the climbing test, by 13.8% in the first attempt and 18.6% in the second [60].
Other studies that have conducted systematic reviews of the literature conclude that the profile of a climber should include a low percentage of body fat, low overall weight, elevated levels of strength, particularly in manual grip, resistance to repeated muscle contractions, high aerobic capacity, and good shoulder and hip flexibility [61].
Lastly, psychophysiological aspects related to climbing have been explored, including problem-solving ability, memory for movement sequences, anxiety levels, and stress management training, whereby all of which can significantly influence performance in sport climbing [19,27,28,29,30]. The results of another study indicated that basic processes of perception, memorization, and information processing, along with motivational and emotional aspects, decisively influence climbing practice [62].
Taken together, these findings support the notion that climbing performance is a result of a variety of factors that can be improved through training [11,58].
In the United Nations (UN), in the year 2015, the world’s top leaders presented the 2030 agenda with a set of 17 objectives known as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These objectives aim to enhance the lives of all individuals [63].
These 17 objectives have replaced the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and are organized into six core elements, such as ensuring a healthy quality of life and caring for the environment and ecosystems, among others [64].
SDG 3 aims to improve the health and well-being of all individuals. Therefore, through the promotion and practice of physical activities, specifically rock climbing or sports, we will be contributing to achieving this Sustainable Development Goal. Since physical activity in any of its forms is a highly significant component in contemporary society, it promotes an understanding of the value of movement in people’s health and well-being.
Maintaining an active and healthy lifestyle has the potential to prevent future health issues in children and offers benefits for both physical health and psychological aspects [65,66]. Furthermore, Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) number 15 aims to achieve the care, sustainability, and preservation of terrestrial ecosystems by protecting and promoting the sustainable use of the terrestrial natural environment [63].
Therefore, terrestrial ecosystems are essential for human survival, contributing to over half of the global GDP and playing a role in various heritage, cultural, spiritual, and economic values [62]. In this context, the physical practice of climbing goes beyond the pursuit of thrills and physical challenges. Apart from providing vigorous exercise and a rewarding experience in nature, climbing establishes a deep connection with the environment.
Climbers often find themselves immersed in spectacular natural environments, fostering a deeper appreciation of the beauty and fragility of nature. This connection can lead to a greater respect for the environment and heightened awareness of the importance of conservation. Climbers frequently become passionate advocates for the preservation of natural areas and the adoption of sustainable practices. Simultaneously, climbing promotes responsibility and care for natural surroundings, as climbers rely on the integrity of rocks and natural structures for their enjoyment and safety.
In summary, climbing not only provides physical and emotional benefits but also nurtures a special bond with the environment, motivating those who practice it to protect and conserve the natural environments that they deeply enjoy.
3. Conclusions
Sport climbing is a sport that combines isometric contraction phases and movement phases in the vertical plane, ascending from the ground to different heights, using various holds, the wall, and upper and lower body segments for support.
The main performance factors that influence this sport, which can be trained to achieve the best competition results, are related to greater intermittent isometric resistance to muscle fatigue and greater muscle strength and pressure exerted primarily by the muscles of the hand and fingers. Additionally, aerobic metabolism plays a primary role, but the involvement of anaerobic metabolism and lactate production increases with the wall’s inclination.
On the other hand, technical–tactical aspects of climbing, the climber’s experience, and the control of psychophysiological factors such as anxiety, stress, or the ability to visualize the route before the ascent also play a significant role. Similarly, anthropometric factors such as joint flexibility in the involved movements and the length of body segments (arms and legs) have a notable impact on performance and the climber’s ascent.
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su152416687
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