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Assessment Tools Measuring Fundamental Movement Skills of Children: History
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Contributor:
Ágnes Virág Nagy
,
Márta Wilhelm
,
Mihály Domokos
,
Ferenc Győri
,
Tamás Berki

Childhood is the most sensitive period for the development of fundamental movement skills (FMS). The assessments also help identify strengths and weaknesses in coordination, balance, agility and other important skills.

  • assessment tool
  • primary school
  • children

1. Introduction

Motor skills are fundamental abilities that enable individuals to perform various physical tasks efficiently [1]. Basic skills like walking, running and jumping and complex activities like sports and fine motor tasks play a crucial role in human development and daily functioning. Developing these skills in childhood is fundamental for competitive sports and lifelong activity, since this contributes to physical, mental and social development as well [2][3][4][5][6]. These benefits also highlight the importance of measuring and continuously monitoring these skills. An accurate motor skill assessment tool serves as an objective measure to evaluate an individual’s physical abilities, and it is essential for identifying strengths and weaknesses. Measuring motor skills in children is a priority for both physical education and youth sports, since it can help teachers and coaches to support the motor skills development that the individual requires.
Ideally, the pillars of motor skills should be developed before the onset of the rapid growth phase in adolescence, since previous studies have already demonstrated that childhood is the most sensitive period for the development of fundamental movement skills (FMS) [5][7][8].  Several researchers refer to FMSs as the pillars of motor skills, since they are a set of foundational physical abilities that serve as building blocks for more complex and specialized movements. FMSs are essential for developing complex movements that involve the ability to move confidently and effectively in a wide range of physical activities. There are four main categories of fundamental movement skills: locomotor movement skills, object control movement skills, stability movement skills and fine motor movement skills [1][8].

2. Assessment tools measuringfundamental movement skills of children 

Table 1 presents the characteristics of the assessment tools. High standard deviations are seen for both the quantity of test items (SD = 20.44) and the duration of the test (SD = 11.30). Three of the tools (MOT 4–6, MMT and BOT-2) appear to be results-oriented, while the M-ABC-2 and TGMD are more process-oriented. Only the TGMD has 2-level scaling in the evaluation process, i.e., evaluating correct or incorrect execution. The other process-oriented assessment tool uses a scale with three or more levels to evaluate partially accurate execution. During testing, the age-appropriate standardized scores from the result-focused assessment tools are used from raw performance scores. The instrument requirements of tools also differ widely, but all of them need some kind of sports equipment to produce the test. There are culture-specific differences. For example, the TGMD can also be performed with tennis and baseball [9]. 

Table 1. Characteristics and theoretical frameworks of movement skill assessment tools
Name Aim  Age Time Items Results Oriented Process Oriented Evaluation Devices Strengths Limitations Citations
Motor skills
test for
4–6-year-old
children (MOT
4–6) 		 Early detection of FMS delay or deficiency 4-6 years 20-25 min 18 items Yes Yes 0–2
point/Item–
raw score		 Also requires
sports
equipment
and special
equipment		 Can be used in an
educational environment.
A quality assessment is
also possible. The
measurement can also be
done in the classroom.		 It does not include a static balance task. It requires several special tools. It contains several similar tasks, thereby increasing the
measurement time.		 (Zimmer és Volkamer, 1987 Zimmer, 2006;) [10][11]
Movement
Assessment
Battery for
Children
(M-ABC-2)		 Detection of
delay or
deficiency		 3-16 years/3 age bands 20-30 min 8 items No Yes 0–5 point/item Also requires
sports
equipment
and special
equipment		 All test areas are included.
Cross-cultural validity.
Few tasks, little
assessment time.		 It requires several
special tools.		 (Henderson és Sugden, 1992; Henderson, Sugden és Barnett 2019) [12][13]
Maastrichtse
Motoriek Test
(MMT)		 To evaluate the
quantitative
and qualitative
components of
movement at
the same time.		 5-6 years, kindergarden school transition 30 min 70 items Yes Yes 0–2 point/item Requires sports equipment It also includes result- and process-oriented assessments evaluation. It places great emphasis on the evaluation of speed coordination.
It also measures sense of rhythm.		 There are too many tasks. Time consuming. (Vles et al., 2004) [14]
Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2) Fine and gross motor skill levels and suitable for identifying movement coordination disorders. 4–21 years 45–60 min 53 items Yes No Ranging from a 2-point scale to a 13-point scale Also requires sports equipment and special equipment You can choose composites or necessary subtests. All test areas are included. The measurement of fine motor skills is emphasized. There are too many tasks that are tiring for young children. Time consuming. It requires several special tools. (Bruininks, 1978; Bruininks and Bruininks, 2012) [15][16]
Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency–Short form Screening test 4–21 years 15–20 min 14 items Yes No Ranging from a 2-point scale to a 13-point scale Also requires sports equipment and special equipment All test areas are included. It requires several special tools. (Bruininks, 1978; Bruininks and Bruininks, 2005) [15][16]
Körperkoordinationtest für Kinder (KTK) Screening dynamic balance skills with typical or brain damage, behavioral problems or learning difficulties children. 4–14 years 20 min 4 items Yes No Raw scores/standardized scores Requires special sports equipment It differentiates well from light to heavy. The test only measures the ability of dynamic balance. It requires several special tools. (Kiphard and Shilling, 1974; Kiphard and Schilling, 2007) [17][18]
Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) Backlog in gross motor performance 3–10 years 15–20 min 12 items No Yes 0–1 point/item Requires sports equipment Excellent for evaluating movement quality. No stability subtest. Culturally dependent. (Ulrich, 1985; Ulrich, 2000)[9][19]
Test of Gross Motor Development-3 (TGMD-3) Backlog in gross motor performance 3–10 years 17–22 min 13 items No Yes 0–1 point/item Requires sports equipment Excellent for evaluating movement quality. No stability subtest. Culturally dependent. (Webster and Ulrich, 2017) [20]
Test of Gross Motor Development-3 Short form (TGMD-3 Shord form) Backlog in gross motor performance 3–10 years 10–13 min 7 items No Yes 0–1 point/item Requires sports equipment Excellent for evaluating movement quality. No stability subtest. Culturally dependent. (Duncan et al., 2022) [21]
Motorische Basiskompetenzen (MOBAK-1) Screen the level of student’s motor competence 6–7 years 10–12 min 8 items Yes No 0–2 point/item Requires sports equipment The subtests are age-specifically adapted to the curriculum requirements of physical education. It can be used well in PE lessons. Uses appropriate equipment in PE. Time-consuming: 5 children can be assessed during a 45-min PE lesson. (Herrmann et al., 2019) [22] 
Motorische Basiskompetenzen (MOBAK-3) Screen the level of student’s motor competence 8–9 years 10–12 min 8 items Yes No 0–2 point/item Requires sports equipment The subtests are age-specifically adapted to the curriculum requirements of physical education. It can be used well in PE. lessons. Uses appropriate equipment in PE. Time-consuming: 5 children can be assessed during a 45-min PE lesson. (Herrmann and Seelig, 2017) [23]

The content components of the FMS assessment tools are shown in Table 2. Locomotion movement analysis was measured with running tasks in three assessment tools (BOT-2; TGMD-2; TGMD-3). Additionally, most assessment tools involve skipping to measure locomotion movement skills.

Table 2. Content analysis of FMS assessment tools.
Subtests/Tasks MOT 4–6 M-ABC-2
(3–6 Age)		 M-ABC-2
(7–10 Age)		 MMT BOT-2 BOT-2
Short Form		 KTK TGMD-2 TGMD-3 TGMD-3 Short Form MOBAK-1 (6–7 Age) MOBAK-3 (8–9 Age)
Locomotion Motor Movement Skills
Run         Shuttle run     X X      
Hop with 1 leg X   Forward Left, Right, Forward left leg, Forward right leg X X   X X X    
Hop with 2 legs Jumping Jack Forward   X Jumping Jack, Same side synchronized, Opposite side synchronized Same side synchronized            
Hop with 1 and 2 legs                     Forward  
Gallop               X X X    
Slide               X X   X  
Run and slide                       X
Leap/Skip               X X      
High jump X           X          
Long jump       X                
Long jump from place         X     X X X    
Side hop         One-legged, Two-legged              
Rolling around longitudinal axis X                      
Rolling forward                     X X
Knee push ups         X X            
Sit up         X X            
Wall sit         X              
V-up         X              
Hiding through hoops X                      
Complex exercise: Stand up–sit down X                      
Object Control Movement Skills
Throw overhand Target       Target     X X X Target Target
Throw underhand   Target Target           X      
Catch (two-handed) Stick, Ring Beanbag X X       X X X X  
Dribble stationary       X One hand, Alternate hand Alternate hand   X X X    
Dribble forward                     X Slalom
Dribble with leg                     X Slalom
Kick       Right leg, Left leg       X X      
Strike               X One hand,
Two hands		 Two hands    
Underhand roll               X        
Rope skipping                       X
Complex exercise: Throw and catch         One hand, Two hand             Two hands
Complex exercise: Drop and catch         One hand, Two hand Both hands            
Stability Movement Skills
Static balance skills
One-leg balance   X X Right leg, Left leg Eyes open, Eyes closed X            
Stork stand       Right leg, Left leg                
One-leg balance on a beam         Eyes open, Eyes closed, Heel-to-toe              
Two-leg balance on the line         Eyes open, Eyes closed              
Two-leg balance       Eyes closed, Eyes closed arms forward                
Standing on toes       X                
Dynamic balance skills
Walk on heels       X                
Walk on the toes       X                
Walking forward on the line X Heels raised Heel-to-toe Tightrope walker X, Heel-to-toe X         Beam Beam, Barrier
Walking backwards on the line X           Beam          
Jumping sideways over a slat Rope       Beam   X          
Moving sideways             X          
Twisting jump in the hoop X                      
Complex exercise: Jump and one-leg balance X                      
Fine Motor Movement skills
Without equipment
Hand tapping       Left, Right                
Feet tapping       Left, Right                
Tapping feet and fingers         Same side synchronized; Opposite side synchronized Same side synchronized            
Pivot thumbs and index fingers         X              
Touching nose with index fingers—eyes closed         X              
Pronation–supination       Dominant hand, Non-dominant hand, Both hands                
Opposition of fingers and thumb       Dominant hand, Non-dominant hand, Both hands                
With equipment
Put tennis balls in boxes X                      
Drawing points X       X              
Drawing lines   X X   2 items X            
Copy         8 items 2 items            
Match packing X                      
Grip with toes X                      
Posting coins   X     X X            
Threading beads   X                    
Folding paper         X X            
Placing pegs     X                  
Threading lace     X                  
Placing pegs in pegboard         X              
Soring cards         X              
Stringing blocks         X              
Filling in a circle         X              
Filing in a star         X              
Connecting dots         X              
Cutting out a circle         X              
Pen       Dominant hand, Non-dominant hand            
Measuring object control movement skills includes different types of throwing, dribbling, kicks, strikes, and other complex exercises (i.e., throw and catch). As seen in Table 2, most of the assessment tools measure a skill with one or more tasks; however, the KTK did not include any tests to measure object control movement skills. Furthermore, it is mostly dominated by upper-limb tests, but the MOBAK, TGMD and MMT examine lower leg coordination.
Static and dynamic balance can be found in the analyzed tools. Almost half of the tests include one-leg and/or two-leg static balance tasks executed with eyes open or closed. Except for the TGMD, all of the assessment tools include dynamic balance tasks, such as walking forward and backwards, and walking heel-to-toe on a walking line or balance beam. Only the MMT and BOT-2 assess fine motor skills without equipment (Table 2). The test includes mainly tasks involving fingers and hands.
In investigating locomotor movement skills measurement, scholars found that the BOT-2 running test is excellent for testing running ability since they use “shuttle run” tests for running agility [16]. For detecting deficiencies in technical execution, the TGMD-2 or TGMD-3 are recommended to use [9]. Both tools help to evaluate running techniques with a unitary criteria system. Those coaches or PE teachers who want to investigate the effectiveness of running with the “moving variably” test of the MOBAK-3 will find it useful, in which the running and lateral running should be alternated for effective performance [24]. Almost all of the assessment tools include hop tests. Depending on the needs, one can choose between one-leg, two-legs, on-the-spot, and forward hopping. The MMT test is recommended  [14] for testing the coordination of two body halves like the hands and feet. Assessing crossed movements during the hop, the BOT-2 assessment tool would be favorable, including suitable tasks [16]. The MOT 4–6 and KTK are recommended for the high jump, the MMT for the long jump, and the BOT-2 and TGMD for the long jump from a stationary position. The MOBAK is applicable for assessing forward rolls, and the MOT 4–6 test is important for considering the measurement of rolling around the longitudinal axis [14].
The throws had a prominent place for object control movement skills. The tasks mainly assess the effectiveness of a target throw, such as a one-handed overarm, or a one-handed underarm throw. The TGMD has a good tool that assesses the quality of the execution of the throw. The two-handed catching skill appears in a variety of different tools. The children were tested with balls, hoops, and bean bags in the different assessment tools. Some tools offer complex tests such as “throw and catch” and “release and catch”; these can be found in the BOT-2 and MOBAK-3. The importance of object control movement skills has been shown in ball games and other sport techniques such as tennis and badminton [25][26][27]. 
Stability movement skills are tested with static and dynamic balance tests. Static balance is assessed in only four assessment tools. One-leg balancing, such as the flamingo test can be tested on the floor, on the line or on the beam, with eyes open and closed.
Overall, the analysis revealed that to assess locomotor movement skills, the BOT-2 has an excellent test for running ability, but for detecting technical difficulties, the TGMD is recommended. To test hopping, the MMT has the best tests. Object control movement skills are measured with throws, dribbles and catches. Most of the tools assessed these skills, but it turned out that the TGMD has the most tests for it. Stability movement skills are tested with static and dynamic balance tests. When dynamic balance is more used, the MOT 4–6, KTK and BOT-2 have the most tools available. However, the MMT is an excellent test for static balance. Fine motor movement skills are easy to assess with the MMT and MOT 4–6, since they have low equipment requirements. The BOT-2 is the best tool for measuring; however, it has high equipment requirements.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/sports11090178

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