Nutritional Composition of Oily Fish: History
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Contributor:
Franklin Chamorro
,
Paz Otero
,
Maria Carpena
,
Maria Fraga-Corral
,
Javier Echave
,
Sepidar Seyyedi-Mansour
,
Lucia Cassani
,
Miguel A. Prieto

Oily fish is a rich source of energy, proteins, essential amino acids, lipids, vitamins, and minerals. Among the macronutrients with the highest contribution are lipids, mainly long-chain omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 LC-PUFA), especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Both EPA and DHA play a beneficial role in promoting health and preventing many diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, such as stroke and acute myocardial infarction. They also contribute to the prevention of neurological, metabolic, and immune-system-related diseases, as well as supporting body-weight control. Oily fish consumption is also important at different stages of human life, from conception to old age. 

  • oily fish
  • polyunsaturated fatty acids
  • fish consumption

1. Introduction

Over the past two decades, consumer concerns related to food safety and quality issues have increased worldwide. To meet the growing expectation of high-quality food, holistic analytical approaches have been developed to comprehensively assess the potential risks and benefits associated with food consumption [1]. Many studies have focused on the benefits of consuming different kinds of seafood, including oily fish. Highly migratory species (HMS) listed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in Article 64 include different species of oily fish highly captured and consumed in Europe, such as blue shark (Prionace glauca), shortfin mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus), and swordfish (Xiphias gladius) [2]. In 2021, about 69,000 tons of these species were fished, which accounted for up to 13% of the total earnings of the Spanish fleet [3]. The nutritional characteristics of these oily fish have turned them into highly commercialized species, so they have economic significance [4].
Blue shark (P. glauca) is an elasmobranch species of the Carcharhinidae family, with an elongated body and large eyes, and an average length of 2.5 m and weight that can reach up to 80 kg. It is noteworthy that P. glauca is significantly more prominent in the North Atlantic than in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It is a marine predator and is common and abundant in oceanic fisheries, mainly feeding on fish such as mackerel, herring, grouper, horse mackerel, bonito, gadidae, squid, and seabirds. According to some studies, dietary patterns differ between sexes and age categories [4][5].
The shortfin mako (I. oxyrinchus), present in all temperate and tropical seas, is a large, fast-swimming, and migratory shark species, an elasmobranch in the Lamnidae family. I. oxyrinchus also feed on fast-moving teleost fish such as tuna, bluefish, and billfish. Several physiological adaptations can be observed in this species, including ridged dermal denticles, internalized red muscle, large gill slits, a torpedo-shaped body, lunate caudal fins, and thunniform swimming mode, which have emerged through evolutionary adaptation [6].
The swordfish (X. gladius) is a pelagic fish from tropical and temperate waters. This species is a unique member of the Xiphiidae family, which lives in shallow waters between 200 and 600 m deep and at temperatures between 18 and 22 °C. They are large, highly migratory predatory fish distinguished by their long, flattened beaks. The Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, as well as the Mediterranean Sea, are fisheries for this species [7].
These three species of oily fish are highly rich in macro- and micro-nutrients, including proteins, essential amino acids, lipids, vitamins, and minerals. It is well known that oily fish are the primary dietary source of the long-chain omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 LC-PUFA), particularly eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) [8]. Both EPA and DHA play a beneficial role in the health promotion and prevention of many diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases (CVD). The effect of these PUFAs may alleviate the risk of stroke, acute myocardial infarction, and hypertension, and they may help with brain development in childhood. In addition, EPA plus DHA have useful effects on neurological and metabolic diseases, body weight control, and immunological system-related diseases [9].
As opposed to the potential health benefits of dietary fish intake, its frequent consumption has raised concerns regarding exposure to several chemical pollutants, such as mercury (Hg), which becomes concentrated in the muscles of most species, mainly in methylmercury (MeHg). Globally, fish consumption and dietary exposure to Hg are highly correlated due to the different amounts and variety of fish consumed, as well as the cultural traditions associated with its consumption. Large and long-lived predatory species such as sharks, swordfish, and large tuna have been reported to contain high concentrations of MeHg, which are positively correlated with the species’ age, weight, or size [10]. Human overdose of organic or inorganic Hg has been described to produce diverse adverse effects on the central nervous and cardiovascular systems, both in humans and animals [8]. Moreover, MeHg intake by mothers has been related to significant health consequences associated with IQ decline in children [11]. In this regard, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) have established a provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) for MeHg of 1.3 µg/kg body weight [12]. In addition, the recommendation for some sections of the population, including children; very frequent fish consumers; and pregnant, nursing, and childbearing-age women, is to limit or avoid the consumption of large fish recognized to contain MeHg. However, the exposure data and risks associated with Hg and MeHg in fish vary. In this context, several studies have concluded that the consumption of certain fish species possess a serious health risk [10][13][14]. Meanwhile, some other studies have provided contradictory reports where the risk-benefit assessments showed that the frequency of consumption of some seafood to increase the benefits of EPA plus DHA could be raised without adverse effects from Hg. Following this trend, additional studies have been conducted to analyze how Hg toxicity is affected by the interaction with selenium (Se). Selenium is an essential trace element that has an antioxidant and anticancer potential, and may offer protection by counteracting the toxicity of MeHg [15].
As a result of these potentially conflicting effects, the public has become increasingly confused about both the risks and benefits of fish consumption in recent years. Despite this, research suggests that moderate consumption of these species may benefit consumer health rather than threaten it. Their high nutritional values may counteract the negative impacts of heavy metal exposure. 

2. Nutritional Composition

Fish products play a valuable role in human nutrition; approximately 20% of the protein of animal origin ingested worldwide comes from fish and shellfish [16]. Fish are mainly made up of water (52 to 82%), proteins (16 to 21%), carbohydrates (approximately 0.5%), lipids (0.5 to 2.3%), vitamins, and minerals, with the protein and lipid fractions highlighted as major components [17]. However, the nutritional composition of fish can vary depending on the species, environmental factors, age, sex, state of maturation, migratory behavior, source of feeding, and even within each species [18]. In this sense, various databases provide information about the approximate composition of fish and shellfish. Among these are the global database of FAO International Network of Food Data Systems (INFOODS), the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the National Marine Fisheries Service of the United States (NOAA), and the Department of Health and Social Care of the United Kingdom (DHSC). In addition, several authors have analyzed the nutritional composition of various species of fish and shellfish [18][19][20][21]. The innumerable nutritional benefits of fish consumption are known, due to its contribution of proteins with a high biological value; ω-3 PUFAs; low cholesterol levels; rich content of fat-soluble vitamins, such as vitamins A and D; and high contribution of essential minerals [22][23]. The nutritional composition of blue fish is highlighted, paying attention to the species P. glauca I. oxyrinchus, and X. gladius, as reflected in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Nutritional composition of the species Xiphias gladius, Prionace glauca, and Isurus oxyrinchus expressed in percentage (%). (A) Nutritional composition and lipid profile. (B) Mineral composition. (C) Vitamin composition. Note: those pie charts that do not reach 100%, correspond to small percentages (0.1–0.2%) of (B) other minerals (Fe, I, Zn) and (C) vitamins (folates, vitamin D).

2.1. Moisture Content

The moisture content in fish can vary between 60 and 80%, depending on the species. It is known that the water content is inversely proportional to the fat content, and that the sum of both is around 80%. In this way, fish with 65–70% humidity indicates that it has a high-fat content. In addition, the interaction of water content with other components, such as proteins and fats, influences the texture of fish [24]. In this sense, the moisture content of the three species ranged between 76 and 78.7%, highlighting X. gladius. These data confirm that all three are classified as oily fish due to their high concentration of lipids [25][26].

2.2. Protein and Amino Acid Profile

The protein content of fish varies between 17 to 23% depending on the species, stage of maturation, stages of starvation, habitat (freshwater, saltwater, or brackish water), and depth; but, unlike lipids, it is not influenced by the time of year [17]. In this sense, the protein content of these species ranges between 17 and 20.7 g of protein per 100 g of product, I. oxyrinchus is the species that provides the most protein. These three species stand out for their protein content compared with other oily fish species such as mackerel, trout, eel, and red mullet [18]. As similarly reported by Mesa et al. (2021), who studied the nutritional importance of the fresh fish, shrimp, and mollusks most consumed in Spain, the consumption of 100 g of these species could contribute 50% of the reference daily intake (RDI) value in the human diet [21]. In 2012, The Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Environment published guidelines regarding the nutritional qualities of products from extractive fishing and aquaculture to inform consumers about the nutritional and health properties of food products. Furthermore, the Spanish guide for the nutritional qualities of products from extractive fishing and aquaculture, using binomial risk-benefit, maintains that these species have a high protein content [27]. Moreover, this guide establishes that these proteins contribute to increasing or conserving muscle mass and maintaining bones in normal conditions. Additionally, it has been described that fish proteins may provide anti-inflammatory effects due to their ability to reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6) and limit the accumulation of pro-inflammatory macrophages at the site of injury [9][28]. On the other hand, experimental studies have reported different health benefits from consuming proteins and protein derivatives from fish, such as the hypocholesterolemic effect. Although the mechanism has not yet been elucidated, it seems that the amino acid composition of fish is responsible [29]. Fish proteins seem to possess antihypertensive effects due to the presence of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor peptides [30][31] and antiatherosclerotic effects [32]. These proteins can improve insulin sensitivity and contribute to the prevention of metabolic syndrome and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes [32].
The nutritional value of a protein depends on the composition and quantity of essential amino acids and their susceptibility to being digested [33][34][35]. According to the protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) method, which is used to assess the quality of a protein [33][34][35], the species contain proteins of an excellent quality, contributing close to 100% of the protein score, amino acids, and a PDCAAS of 94% [34]. They are also considered to be of a better quality than red meat due to their lower collagen content and better proteolytic digestion [9][36]. X. gladius shows a high content of essential amino acids, namely histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, phenylalanine, and methionine, providing between 40 and 60% RDI for all of the essential amino acids [37][38][39][40]. This amino acid profile provides X. gladius with many health benefits. It has been reported that an adequate supply of histidine through diet has positive effects on neurodegenerative and cognitive disorders related to age, metabolic syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, and arthritis or inflammatory diseases such as bowel disease [41]. In addition, the contribution of amino acids, such as leucine, isoleucine, and valine, contribute to the regulation of energy homeostasis, metabolism, and innate and adaptive immunity, also participating in glucose metabolism and the synthesis of lipids and proteins [42]. Additionally, phenylalanine and tryptophan are considered natural antidepressants and contribute to proper functioning of the brain [43].

2.3. Lipid Content: Fatty Acids Profile and ω-3/ω-6 Relation

The health benefits from the consumption of fish are mainly associated with the contribution of high-quality lipids and a fraction of PUFAs, such as EPA and DHA [9]. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has suggested a recommended daily intake (RDI) of between 250 and 500 mg of EPA plus DHA for European adults, based on cardiovascular risk considerations [44]. In this sense, oily fish can easily fulfill this RDI. The lipid content of the studied species is very similar, ranging between 4.3 and 4.5 g/100 g, highlighting I. oxyrinchus with a lipid contribution of 4.5 g/100 g. These species have a high content of lipids and an adequate contribution of PUFAs compared with other species, such as mullet and horse mackerel [18][21][45]. For this reason, they are classified as fatty species or called oily fish.
The guidelines published in 2012 by the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Environment established a nutritional declaration for these species indicating a low content of saturated fats and high content of ω-3 fatty acids. PUFAs are described as having properties that can contribute to the normal functioning of the heart and the prevention of CVDs [27]. P. glauca and I. oxyrinchus displayed saturated fatty acids (SFAs) as their main component, with palmitic acid (C16:0) being the main SFA [21]. Meanwhile, X. gladius had a higher proportion of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), highlighting oleic acid (C18:1 n–9) [21]. As far as PUFAs, the results were very similar, ranging between 1.2 and 1.4 g/100 g, highlighting P. glauca as the species that contained the highest amount of PUFAs. Within this group, ω-3 stood out, and its content ranged between 0.795 and 0.900 g/100 g. In this sense, Mesa et al. (2021) [21] reported on the fatty acid profile of various species, such as P. glauca and X. gladius, considering their significant amounts of ω-3-PUFAs, mainly DHA and EPA, which showed similar quantities to those found in salmon and sardines [21]. It was pointed out that consuming a portion of P. glauca (150 g) per week would provide approximately 276 mg/day of ω-3 PUFAs [21]. This intake would contribute to covering the indications of the EFSA panel recommending the consumption of at least 250 mg/day of EPA plus DHA to maintain normal brain function and vision, contributing to a reduction in the risk of mortality from coronary heart disease [46][47]. Additionally, ω-6-PUFAs were present in a lower proportion in all fish species and mainly comprised arachidonic acid (C20:4 ω-6) [21], thus favoring the ω-3/ω-6 ratio. In this sense, Mesa et al. (2021) indicated a ratio of ω-3/ω-6 of 5.7/1 in the case of sharks and 17.4/1 in X. gladius [21].

2.4. Carbohydrates

The concentration of carbohydrates in fish is usually low, approximately 0.3%. They are frequently found in the skeletal muscle in the form of glycogen and as an integral part of nucleotides. The soluble carbohydrate content varied between 0 and 0.21 g/100 g wet weight for all species [48].

2.5. Vitamins

Vitamins are essential to maintain key functions in the human body. There are two classes, water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins, with the greater proportion found in the form of fat-soluble vitamins, which are located mainly in the muscle and livers of fish. The species under study stood out as they contained significant amounts of B complex vitamins, comprising niacin (B3) ranging between 2.1 and 9 mg/100 g, pyridoxine (B6) at 0.50 mg/100 g, and cobalamin (B12) ranging between 1.35 and 5 µg/100 g; X. gladius was highlighted for its contribution to these vitamins. The consumption of 100 g of these species provides between 25 and 50% RDI of these vitamins. The guidelines published in 2012 by the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Environment established the nutritional benefits as possessing a high content of the aforementioned vitamins [27]. Within the nutritional declarations, the guidelines indicate that the consumption of these vitamins contributes to normal energy metabolism, the correct functioning of the nervous system, as well as heart and psychological functioning. Niacin contributes to maintaining normal conditions for the skin and mucous membranes and reduces fatigue. Pyridoxine and cobalamin contribute to the normal functioning of the immune system, the formation of red blood cells, and the process of cell division [27]. Additionally, these species are rich in fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamins A and D. Their consumption can provide between 25 and 80% RDI; thus, they represent a relevant source of these vitamins. The consumption of fat-soluble vitamins is important because they contribute to normal iron metabolism, immune system functioning, and cell differentiation processes [25]. In the particular case of vitamin D, it participates in the maintenance of normal bones and teeth, the maintenance of normal calcium levels in the blood, and the normal absorption and utilization of calcium and phosphorus [49][50][51].

2.6. Minerals

Mineral elements are among the most relevant nutrients acquired from fish as they participate in many biological processes as part of numerous enzymes. They cannot be synthesized by humans, so intake through diet is essential [52]. In this context, the species constitute an excellent food source of minerals. They stand out for their content of magnesium (Mg) at 40–57 mg/100 g, potassium (K) at 160–342 mg/100 g, phosphorus (P) at 190–506 mg/100 g, and selenium (Se) at 28–55 μg/100 g; X. gladius is highlighted as contributing the highest amount of these minerals among the species studied. According to the report published by the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Environment in 2012, these species are presented as a relevant source of these minerals. Regarding health claims, Mg contributes to normal energy metabolism, electrolyte balance, normal muscle and nervous system function, normal protein synthesis, and cell division processes [27][53][54]. On the other hand, Se is attributed as having different benefits to health, among which it contributes to the normal functioning of the immune system, normal functioning of the thyroid, and protection of cells against oxidative damage. Se is part of selenoproteins, which are responsible for biological reactions of the reduction-oxidation type, antioxidant defense, metabolism of the thyroid hormone, and immune responses [55][56]. Various studies have reported that Se can protect against some environmental contaminants, such as Hg, which is present in some fish, even though this point will be discussed later [57][58][59][60][61]. On the other hand, these species have a low contribution of sodium (Na) at 79–100 mg/100 g. The nutritional declaration highlights these species as having a low Na content, with their consumption thus being attractive in low-sodium diets, for example, for patients with hypertension. Eating a variety of nutritious foods is the best way to maintain health and prevent chronic disease. As fish is a source of minerals, it should be a main component of a balanced diet. The essentiality of these elements is beyond dispute, and their daily requirements must be fully covered in a healthy diet.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/nu15234919

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