The creation of architectural space through design requires mature thought [82]. Developing the ability to design architectural spaces is one of the most important skills for architects to acquire during their careers [83], and it is the result of several interconnected elements [84,85]. Nora Argelia Aguilera González [86] introduced interactive design in a descriptive geometry course to help her students better comprehend space, master the principles of spatial projection, and hone their spatial skills. It was found that VR/AR can more effectively teach pictorial geometry and evaluate different student characteristics, enhancing their learning experience. However, enhancing architectural design education by relying solely on VR/AR is not ideal. Integrating technology with conventional teaching methods and finding ways for professors to interact with students can help students learn more effectively. Jorge Martin-Gutierrez et al. [87] asked senior students to assess their visual–spatial perception by acquiring a sense of space in a virtual environment, while first-year architecture students were asked to sketch architectural spaces in physical size to improve their spatial skills. The experiment included six building blocks, which were categorized into three difficulty levels for analysis and observation once the space had been drawn. In the second portion of the experiment, students virtually wandered each architectural room to note perceptions and sensations, employing the same six architectural spaces but with the inclusion of various materials, textures, colors, and natural sunlight. The study found that training considerably enhanced spatial orientation, rotation, and vision. Additionally, it was discovered that immersive virtual reality environments could convey the intended emotions of the designer. However, for tactile simulation of materials, VR technology is currently not advanced enough and requires further development.

Instructive experiments on architectural space design have also made use of controlled experiments. Jeffrey Kim et al. sought to engage students, enhance their spatial skills, and reduce their cognitive load by introducing augmented reality technology, as they found that students prefer active participation in the classroom to passive lectures and textbooks. The study involved 254 randomly assigned students who participated in a post-observation experiment on the visualization lecture, a NASA TLX, and a post hoc survey regarding the intervention. The findings indicated that while AR enhanced assessment scores, it had no effect on students’ acquisition of spatial abilities, but it did increase their motivation to study. Mohamed Darwish et al. [88] conducted controlled investigations using pre- and post-project examinations of spatial aptitude. The study compared two groups of architecture department students at Ain Shams University and found no discernible variation in spatial competence levels between them. The experimental group used VR for 3D sketching and modeling and AR as an assessment tool for self-feedback throughout a three-week entrance door design project, while the control group employed conventional tools. The findings revealed an improvement in the group employing XR technology’s overall level of spatial ability, suggesting that XR technology may enhance architectural design education by strengthening students’ spatial skills and lowering their cognitive load. However, learning the technology itself might be challenging and requires improvement for efficient tool learning.

Additionally, new systems have been created for use in the architectural space design process. Ziad Ashour et al. [89] developed a new educational platform called BIMxAR (BIM software combined with AR) that utilizes a physical–virtual overlay feature. The study first discussed the system’s performance and technical features before conducting a three-stage experiment in a pilot user study to gauge participants’ learning gains and mental cognitive load while using the system. The study found that the system model offers an accurate solution, with only minor inaccuracies that can be applied to AEC AR applications. Additionally, the system provides an innovative augmented reality representation that allows users to interact with it and access BIM metadata. The system enables a sliced perspective of the area behind the actual objects, helping users better understand spatial relationships in the building. The approach reduces the additional cognitive strain placed on students and enhances their learning. With its integrated learning capabilities and visuals, BIMxAR is a straightforward and practical learning solution for construction education. Hadas Sopher et al. [90] conducted a case study at the Israel Institute of Technology where participants alternated between immersive and non-immersive media each week to evaluate a structure. The study gathered each participant’s ideas through the FOs network to represent their perspectives on the design space. The results suggest that IVR (immersive VR) has the potential to increase student interest in design criticism while also reducing carbon emissions, providing evidence for sustainable development in teaching. However, to improve the use of IVR as a teaching tool, the study needs to be more specific in terms of how IVR can improve design criticism communication.

Traditional architectural design prioritizes form and function [91,92]. Research academics began to recognize the significance of technology for teaching architectural design after the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak [93,94]. According to C. Lorenzo et al. [95], immersive technologies are a new tool that will be necessary for future architectural careers and should be learned during undergraduate years. At Madrid’s CEU University Digital Lab, students are taught to use VR and AR to interpret architectural projects, analyze inaccessible buildings in depth, visualize and analyze architectural design projects, and allow for iterative trial and error and summary reflection during the design process. The study found that the use of technology significantly affects the learning outcomes of students. Chun-Heng Lin et al. [96] developed a multi-user system integration framework integrating 3D modeling, process modeling, and VR platforms based on procedural modeling and immersive VR to assist architectural design education based on design scenario development. However, a research limitation is the potential contradiction between the design parameters built in the process modeling platform and the direct object manipulation provided in the virtual reality environment, which necessitates the creation of a solution.

Numerous other academics have used a variety of different approaches for their study of teaching and learning. Fauzan Alfi Agirachman et al. examined the application of the VRDR system in a visibility-based design review process in a third-year architectural design studio course in conjunction with eco-psychological ideas. The study found that a virtual reality, which is based on a cognitive-based design review approach, can aid students in developing their design work. However, the study was only conducted in an educational setting. Further research and modification are needed to determine whether cognitive-based design review methodologies are appropriate for use by professional architects. Julie Milovanovic et al. examined specific VR/AR research projects to support collaborative design in teaching and learning environments and enhance student design quality. The study identified the advantages and disadvantages of VR/AR devices and suggested an alternative system, CORAULIS, that incorporates VR and SAR technologies. CORAULIS offers multiple augmented viewpoints of design objects as well as seamless navigation and interaction in all representation spaces. However, the study did not assess the impact of utilizing the CORAULIS application, which is a drawback. Tane Moleta compared real-time virtual engines (RTVEs) with several well-known frameworks for architectural design education to investigate the level to which RTVEs are used in architectural design studios. The study suggests developing the use of technology in architectural design from the viewpoint of the students. However, a limitation of the study is its inability to thoroughly examine students’ experiences using RTVEs in architectural design studios.

While useful, immersive interaction design for architecture has many drawbacks. Hugo C et al. [97] conducted a study in which first-year architectural design students developed recreational buildings using vertical elements, horizontal elements, light, color, degree of closure, and materials. The effectiveness of IVR in the four design phases was evaluated through a questionnaire. The findings suggest that IVR has several benefits, including the ability to perceive spatial design at a real scale, create visualizations in a virtual space, experiment and interact with the space from a first-person perspective inside the building, and experiment with various forms of design in the virtual environment. The study also found that the short length of IVR use and the challenge of adopting it in remote and underdeveloped locations were significant challenges for teachers.

Numerous academics have studied how to acquire and learn implicit knowledge. Justin F. Hartless et al. examined the use of VR/AR to simulate scenarios that might occur in students’ careers by asking students to evaluate architectural designs and make decisions on how to adapt them to serve VR/AR wheelchair users. This inspired students to utilize implicit knowledge. The findings demonstrated that both VR and AR simulations allowed wheelchair users to complete the assignment, and comments indicating tacit knowledge eventually came to light. However, students preferred the VR experience. The experiment provides empirical evidence that the use and development of tacit knowledge helpful to AEC decision making is encouraged by VR/AR. Wei Wu et al. suggested a similar VR/MR technology to help with the acquisition of implicit knowledge and the development of expertise by simulating a small house accessibility design assessment and investigating the potential technological interventions in construction education and workforce development to close the current skills gap between novices and specialists. The study found evidence to support VR/MR’s ability to close the experience gap and help with college students’ expertise.

A unique type of architectural design known as “urban design” takes the structure’s surroundings into account [98]. David Fonseca et al. developed virtual games for teaching architecture and urban design. Examples of educational technology include a PBL-based teaching model, enhancements to the virtual navigation system based on data from earlier user studies, and hybrid research of user perception enhancement based on both educational and professional use. The study found that teaching tactics can be chosen with the student’s adaptation and area of competence after identifying the limitations of the system and the essential distinctions and requirements of the user profile functions. Workflow efficiency and building project sustainability are both enhanced by technology. The effect of age and gender has to be evaluated in the future. Maria Velaora et al. combined a self-learning educational experience based on a digital reality model with methodology and design evaluation to show the effectiveness of urban design solutions for improving architectural design abilities. They combined play space with architecture. The study found that urban virtual environments are free from static nature by dematerializing and replicating the location coordinates and geographic restrictions of the redesigned elements. Additionally, in a virtual reality setting, dynamic spatial ideas can be observed and evaluated.

Architectural expression is a form of expression of architectural design and concept [99]. Tatiana Estrina et al. developed a collection of case studies on pedagogy and curriculum in the construction industry. Using extended reality cases that are taught in lecture courses, influenced by architectural design, and learned experientially, people can discuss various immersive technologies in various environments. This enables us to trace the evolution of immersive media across diverse instances of architectural expression, from solely interactive technology to mixed reality and interactive. The students in the case studies all received high marks for their architecture course work and evaluations.

Architectural history is the study of the positioning of architectural works in history [100]. It is frequently important to expand on the study of architectural history to learn architectural design from earlier works. Agnieszka Gębczyńska-Janowicz [101] asserted that virtual buildings created with VR can replace actual ones. Virtual reality can assist students in learning new abilities for future careers by fusing the past and present and reconstructing nonexistent architecture in classes on monument conservation or designing monumental architecture. Chiu-Shui Chan et al. [102] created a virtual pantheon scenario using images, sketches, and textures to provide students with a rich architectural learning experience. The IVR environment combined high-resolution photographs and audio narration of historical items, enabling students to precisely measure, recognize, and understand the 3D characteristics, size, and scale of the virtual space. The study found that VR technology facilitated a better comprehension of the dimensions and scale of space, and the recreation of historical facts in the IVR environment enhanced students’ understanding of the past. Similarly, Eliyahu Keller et al. [103] analyzed the joint archaeological Lifta of the MIT Department of Architecture and Ben-Gurion University, recognizing the limitations of VR in creating objects and time. The study highlights the importance of exploring how students learn and using progressive educational methods to enhance learning outcomes. Mohammed A. Bahobail et al. [104] incorporated architectural history into virtual technology and turned real-world projects into three-dimensional movies to substitute conventional lectures. The study found that VR technology has the potential to improve architecture education, but further research is needed, along with financial support from schools. One of the study’s limitations is its narrow focus on teaching architecture courses at King Saud University’s Faculty of Architecture and Planning, highlighting the need for a more comprehensive pedagogical study.

Building structures are crucial to the form, style, and sustainability of architecture [105]. Building Structure enhances construction design [106]. Yelda Turkan et al. introduced an AR program available for iPads and used interactive 3D visualization technology to teach a structural analysis course for civil and architectural engineering students at Iowa State University. They conducted pre-tests, post-tests, and surveys to assess the accuracy of the program. The study found that traditional teaching methods overemphasize the analysis of individual structural members and fall short of providing a holistic approach to analyzing complex structures with numerous interrelated elements. AR technology fills this gap, benefits students’ structural learning, and is a tool that students prefer. The study’s shortcoming is that, even after quantitative analysis of the data, not enough students made up the sample size, which prevented the results from being statistically significant.

Architectural technology, which is based on the philosophy of knowledge of science, engineering, and technology [107], is the art of building construction [108]. WOOD, C.F. et al. [109] created a questionnaire to gather information on the indicators of virtual reality approaches in the UK and explain how to effectively set up the system in the classroom. The study highlights the benefits of virtual reality for students and clarifies any software concerns, demonstrating that students understand the need for beneficial aspects of technology that they would encounter in their profession. The findings offer a solid theoretical foundation for the introduction of virtual reality technology in education, emphasizing the need for teachers to change the way they educate to enable pupils to master technology at a young age. In another study by Julio Cabero-Almenara et al. at the University of Seville Chapel, 44 students from a basic construction mathematics course participated, and their acceptance of MR technology was consistently high. The study suggests that MR technology can be adopted in various teaching modes, including face-to-face and non-face-to-face teaching, highlighting the need to support university instructors who advocate for MR in the classroom.

As construction is a high-risk industry, safety management is a top concern for construction organizations, making it crucial for students to understand safety management [110]. To create an authentic learning framework, Fan Yang et al. [111] used nine authentic learning principles to design instructional materials and develop an immersive VR/MR simulation of an actual tunnel collapse occurrence. The study found that while VR/MR simulations are more motivating than video courses, they can also be uncomfortable and disrupt learning, and the virtual environment is not entirely realistic, making it difficult for students to gauge the simulation’s accuracy. This highlights a need for future improvement in this area. According to research, utilizing both 3D and 2D media can result in the most efficient authentic learning environment.

Building construction and construction industries are constantly refining work methods to produce the finest possible construction results [112,113,114]. As more construction units are using extended reality technology [115,116], it is essential to include technology in construction courses at the undergraduate level. Samad M. E. Sepasgozar [117] discusses the use of digital twins and mixed reality in the construction industry to extend the body of knowledge on building construction, showcase the capabilities of virtual technology for education, and provide educators with a set of simple to complex technological tools. The study implemented digital teaching of tunnel excavators, allowing students to learn the procedure of operating an excavator to plan excavations at a construction site. Morgan Mcarthur [118] engaged students in an architectural engineering teaching module using the VADER testing platform. The VADER was utilized as an add-on to enhance the curriculum being taught, and the study found that VADER improves students’ comprehension of disciplines linked to architectural design and construction while addressing the challenges and ambiguities associated with selecting interests and career aspirations. Ece Erdogmus et al. invited 89 students to participate in the VADERs module, which allowed them to experience a virtual rotation of architectural engineering and its sub-disciplines, solve computational tasks, and investigate the effects of design decisions on the sub-disciplines. The study found that students were more engaged and conscious of diversity, more confident in their subject knowledge, and very interested in and supportive of the use of technology. Future empirical studies are needed to assess each module utilizing more participant-friendly virtual apps and the methods described in the text.

Hajirasouli A. et al. analyzed the most cutting-edge AR technology and integrated it into teaching and learning methods for building construction to give students a more practical and realistic learning experience. The study found that using augmented reality to educate building processes enhances students’ overall performance and capacity for both short- and long-term learning, as well as their knowledge of complicated assembly processes. The utilization of the students’ courses as experimental research constituted the experimental constraint, but the cycle was insufficiently long. Longer cycles should be used in future experimental experiments to show that AR applications can be made to be sustainable for both the short- and long-term.

Many scholars have reviewed XR’s applications and directions for development in order to confirm that the technology is currently being used in building construction practice. Peng Wang et al. [119] analyzed the development and future directions of virtual reality technologies and applications, from desktop-based VR to immersive VR to 3D game-based VR and BIM-based VR, in the CEET field. The study found that education has benefited from the shift from teacher-centered to student-centered learning and the trend toward establishing integrated teaching and learning. However, the research is limited to the technology in the CEET field and has not been tested in emerging engineering education models, nor has the applicability of the technology to other educational tools been tested. Yi Tan et al. [120] reviewed the current state, constraints, difficulties, and potential directions of VR/AR educational applications in the architectural, engineering, and construction sectors. The study separated educational applications into four categories: “immersive AR/VR learning”, “AR/VR structural analysis”, “visual aid design tools”, and “AR/VR-based teaching aids”, and educational training into two categories: “AR/VR virtual operation guide” and “safety training”. The findings demonstrated that VR/AR provides the AEC sector with the chance to change education and enhance current teaching methodologies in a more diverse educational environment.

Reviews of the state of AR applications today have been compiled by a number of academics. Pei-Huang Diao et al. [121] reviewed the use of AR in construction engineering education courses and proposed that AR courses be preferred over those with objective grading criteria to examine students’ learning outcomes, thereby improving classroom quality. The study examined fundamental knowledge, application areas, development tools, system types, teaching devices, teaching methods, and learning strategies. However, the application of research methodologies, learning strategies, and teaching techniques, as well as the choice of equipment and type of AR system, continue to provide challenges. Aso Hajirasouli et al. proposed the usefulness of AR in the educational environment of building construction using qualitative methodologies and thematic data analysis. The study found that while little research had been conducted on other skills, educational research in the field of architecture had largely concentrated on performance, communication, and spatial skills. However, there is a lack of appropriate pedagogical approaches to applying technology to architecture and specialized training in technology. Nonetheless, the introduction of technology has led to more sustained learning, improved learning experiences, and enhanced learning in both the short and long terms, according to educational research in the field of architecture.

Additionally, certain scholars have invented new teaching paradigms and expanded upon existing educational platforms. Harald Urban et al. created a new “AR-enabled teaching” platform to test the usefulness of the AR Editor and AR Viewer applications in building construction and engineering classes. The study found that the AR editor can be used in the classroom to help students and teachers build AR teaching situations without having any programming experience. Students expressed satisfaction with the app and a desire to continue using the technology in the future. However, there is a need to further expand the common 3D format in the future because the “AR-supported teaching platform” can only be used in the IFC file discipline at this time. In the framework of a sports design competition, Karan R. Patil et al. [122] presented technology using PBL as a new teaching methodology. PBL does not demand investment in projects, but rather leverages real-world projects to conceptually frame the learning process, providing students with hands-on building design and construction experience during the competition. The study found that projects incorporating actual design and construction experience can help students learn certain skills that help them develop broad tacit and explicit knowledge.

A number of academics and researchers have opened up their campuses to students so they might participate in practical construction learning. Fopefoluwa Bademosi et al. [123] assessed undergraduate students in the University of Florida’s lower and middle education buildings in randomized groups. The study combined AR and visualization layers, simulating exterior masonry systems, roofing, and steel assembly system environments based on BIM model elements and diagrams overlaid on real-time live video, and transforming the site into a virtual scene introduced into the teaching classroom for interactive student experience. Pre-testing and post-learning tests were used to reinforce key technological and buildability concepts. When compared with modeling using AR alone, it was found that BIM’s robust and comprehensive database makes it possible for AR to obtain model information for educational buildings more quickly and precisely, which significantly reduces labor time. The findings demonstrated that students who had taken the AR course were better able to recognize components of steel, masonry, and roofing structures, qualifying them for future employment. Ahmad K. Bashabsheh et al. employed a questionnaire research and software test to simulate a building construction course and chose consulting office modeling with Jordan University of Science and Technology construction students as their experimental subjects. The study found that students learn more while utilizing VR technology, develop tri-axial competences more effectively than when receiving traditional education, and find technology use to be more enjoyable.