Augmented Reality has emerged as a promising technology for enhancing primary education. Numerous research works have explored the integration of AR in primary mathematics education, shedding light on its impact and benefits. The interactive nature of AR technology allows students to visualize and manipulate three-dimensional objects by blending the virtual with the real world (as opposed to, for example, computer games placed in a virtual environment), fostering a deeper understanding of spatial concepts and geometry principles [19,20].

Several studies support students’ conceptual understanding, problem-solving skills, and geometry learning outcomes. For instance, Flores-Bascuñana et al. [21] conducted a preliminary exploratory study on the use of AR for learning 3D geometric contents with sixth-grade primary students. The study demonstrated its potential to enhance geometric understanding, indicating that AR positively impacts students’ attitudes towards learning mathematics. Cahyono et al. [22] explored the design and implementation of an AR-based learning environment for geometry instruction, highlighting the benefits of AR in enhancing elementary students’ spatial reasoning skills and geometric understanding. Yixuan and Qiang [23] focused on the use of AR technology to teach three-dimensional graphics in primary schools. The study investigated the effectiveness of AR-based instruction, providing insights into how AR can be effectively utilized to teach three-dimensional graphics, enhancing students’ understanding of spatial concepts, and improving their visualization skills. Sun and Chen [24] examined the effectiveness of using an AR app to learn geometry, specifically in the context of the volumetric measurement of compound bodies, in elementary schools in Taiwan, while Purnama et al. [25] developed a geometry learning tool using AR for elementary school students, both showing positive impacts on learning outcomes and engagement. Additionally, Husniah et al. [26] introduced GemAR, a geometry AR application designed for sixth-grade elementary school students, demonstrating its potential to enhance learning outcomes, engagement, and motivation, while Rossano et al. [27] developed an AR-based learning environment that effectively fosters student engagement, spatial visualization skills, and a conceptual understanding of geometry. Javaheri et al. [28] developed and evaluated the usability of an AR environment aimed at promoting spatial imagination in mathematics education for first- and second-grade elementary school students. Finally, Chen [29] and Arvanitaki and Zaranis [30] investigated the effects of AR on learning performance, motivation, and math anxiety in geometry, where the findings shed light on the potential benefits of using AR to improve learning outcomes and reduce math anxiety.

In addition to geometry, there are research studies that specifically concentrate on the branch of mathematics related to arithmetic. Li et al. [31] explored the utilization of AR in an innovative social learning game designed for elementary school students. The findings emphasized the AR game’s positive influence on student engagement, collaborative problem solving, and social interactions, showcasing its potential to enhance learning experiences. Similarly, van der Stappen et al. [32] introduced MathBuilder, a collaborative AR math game for elementary school students, highlighting the benefits of using collaborative AR games in mathematics education. Rebollo et al. [33] focused on the development of an AR game, aiming to create an engaging and interactive learning experience for mathematics. The study evaluated the effectiveness of the AR game in improving students’ math learning outcomes and engagement.

Finally, in the context of incorporating AR and active learning into primary school, Demitriadou et al. [5] developed an AR application for teaching geometric solids in primary education, because students frequently struggle with distinguishing between two-dimensional and three-dimensional geometric shapes. The findings revealed that AR not only improved the learning outcomes of students in understanding mathematical concepts but also significantly boosted their engagement and interest.

In summary, the aforementioned research papers collectively highlight the potential of AR in enhancing primary mathematics education. AR-based approaches, such as AR social learning games, geometry learning tools, and collaborative AR math games, have shown positive impacts on student engagement, problem-solving skills, spatial imagination, and geometry understanding. Furthermore, the integration of AR in primary mathematics education addresses the challenges in teaching three-dimensional graphics, promotes visualization skills, and contributes to improved learning outcomes and motivation. Therefore, the above studies provide valuable insights into the use of AR technology in primary school. However, due to the fact that research on the integration of AR and active learning in primary mathematics education remains scarce, the need for further exploration in the field has emerged.