Language Learning Investment in Higher Education: History
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Subjects: Language & Linguistics | Education & Educational Research
Contributor:
Leonor Dauzón-Ledesma
,
Jesús Izquierdo

Second language learning investment relates to the willingness and effort of learners to develop language competencies which will give them a good return in terms of personal or professional benefits. Investment relates to a learner’s willingness to learn something which they believe could “give them a good return on that investment”. Qualitative research findings indicate that the construct of investment is complex and interweaves different aspects of language learning, such as motivation, necessity or personal needs, engagement and agency.

  • learning investment
  • language learning
  • higher education

1. Introduction

In the field of second language acquisition, investment is a construct put forward by Norton in 1995. Based on Bourdieu’s (1987) [1] ideas about cultural, linguistic and economic capital, Norton explains that students invest in language learning to develop competencies that can give them, for instance, peer recognition, job opportunities or economic benefits that will help them compensate for the effort that the learning process requires. In the case of immigrant students, they invest in learning a language which is necessary for social interaction and integration into a community outside of the classroom [2]. For these learners, language learning investment gives them opportunities to succeed in life. In educational settings, where the new language is not spoken outside of the classroom, language learning investment relates to the development of the communicative competence which can translate into economic benefits and professional recognition [3][4]. In both contexts, language learning investment then creates good return conditions. Therefore, this construct has been explored to understand its benefits during second/foreign language acquisition.
In a world where English is a global language, the exploration of language learning investment has become a necessity, since educational stakeholders have turned to policies and curricular changes that sanction the learning of this language not only in primary, secondary and vocational education but also in higher education [5][6][7]. These policies aim to equip students with the linguistic skills that they need in order to join the productive forces of a country upon the completion of their university studies [8]. In the case of undergraduate students, irrespective of their future profession, compulsory English language learning may imply that the students need to satisfy requirements, such as language attainment levels, language courses and sometimes, standardized language tests [5][9].
In the context of higher education, it then becomes important to examine the learning investment of the students as they meet the curricular demands for learning the English language. To date, a handful of qualitative studies have explored this issue through individual cases in different contexts [10][11][12]. As indicated in the upcoming sections, these studies provide some valuable insights into the dimensions that seem to underpin language learning investment. However, they are limited in terms of the representativeness and generalizability of the results in higher education [10], which includes large and diverse populations of future professionals [5]. As argued in the manuscript, the Likert-scale questionnaire is one type of instrument that could be considered for the elicitation of representative and generalizable quantifiable data [13][14][15][16][17][18] from large student populations.

2. Language Learning Investment in Higher Education

2.1. Language Learning Investment Dimensions

In the study of learning investment, motivation can be defined as “an internal state that enables an action (to learn) and involves understanding the factors that cause this state” [19] (p. 5). Motivation is described as the reasons that determine an individual’s behavior to achieve a goal. Motivation gives direction to intentions and actions. Learners invest in learning because “they will acquire a wider range of symbolic and material resources, which will in turn increase the value of their cultural capital and social power” [20]. Since attitudes can be considered as part of motivation [21], studies on language learning investment often use the terms interchangeably [22] or explore attitudes and motivation together [23]. The learners’ motivation may yield results that generate satisfaction and detect benefits in the learning process [24][25]. When learners are motivated to learn, investment in language learning produces good outcomes that act as positive feedback. Learners then enter a positive cycle, where investment could benefit their economic capital in terms of employment opportunities. The benefit increases motivation and promotes more investment.
The second factor which is often associated to investment is the learners’ necessity to use the language [3][26][27]. Learning necessities vary depending on the learners’ differences, their linguistic and sociocultural backgrounds [28] and the expectations they have regarding the outcomes and personal benefits of learning a second language. In this regard, personal, professional, heritage or economic needs can have an influence on learning investment [2][21][28][29][30]. The reasons that different groups of learners have to learn a second language vary depending on the context and factors that are involved. For instance, there are learners immersed in the second language context, such as immigrants in English-speaking communities who need the target language to communicate, work, become part of society and have the chance to speak and build relationships [24]. There are learners who are not immersed in the target language context but need the language for professional or vocational purposes [27]. Moreover, in the context of foreign language learning, the learners’ needs may relate to recognition and profit [12].
Engagement and agency are two factors that are also associated to investment when the learners show interest, have initiative and set goals for their own learning [26]. According to Norton, engagement in language learning investment is related to actions [31]. Although Hiver et al. indicate that engagement is composed of different dimensions, Norton’s construct of investment seems more connected to Hiver et al.’s behavioral dimension of engagement which implies action and voluntary active involvement on a task [32]. In Hiver’s words, engagement “refers to the amount (quantity) and type (quality) of learners’ active participation and involvement in a language learning task or activity” [32] (p. 2). The behavioral aspect of engagement has also been acknowledged by other authors. For instance, Mercer [33] (p. 645) refers to Skinner et al. (2009, p. 225), who describe engagement as “energized, directed, and sustained actions.” Moreover, Angelovska et al. indicate that engagement implies behaviors that show effort and action while achieving goals [14]. Within this perspective of engagement, if there is no engagement during the learning process, there will be no achievement of goals, and the development of the learners’ competencies will not occur. Since motivation and engagement relate to actions, Artamonova [22] highlights that motivation is limited to the intention of doing something. Nonetheless, engagement involves the realization of an action.
Agency is another concept that has been associated with investment. Harrison et al. [26] (p. 4) define it as “actions where the students contribute actively to shape their own learning thereby enhancing their investment in the process.” Agency is closely related to investment since learners expect to receive something good in return for the effort and time that they invest in chosen activities with a specific goal. Agency can be identified through will but also, above all, through the determination and perseverance that the learners have in order to achieve goals which produce good results at the end of a learning process [26]. In other words, the learners take the initiative of deciding how to undertake the learning process and regulate their achievements through the autonomous selection of learning activities and time organization [34]. As explained by Naderpour [35], engagement can be considered the first step of agency while taking action and perseverance would be the last step of agency. It can be said that, during language learning investment, motivation, necessity, engagement and agency are interrelated and support the learning process and achievement of goals. Nonetheless, agency implies greater efforts that are mediated through initiative, determination and perseverance.

2.2. Second Language Learning Investment in Higher Education

Research has provided some initial evidence on the aforementioned factors as important dimensions of language learning investment among different groups of students. One group includes learners who are immersed in the language context and invest in language learning to interact and communicate with others in real life. Due to language learning investment, they can become part of the community where they live and learn the culture [19][30]. Additionally, due to their desire to be part of the society which uses the target language, through language learning investment, the learners claim their right to speak and be recognized in the second language community. While the learners invest in language learning, they acquire resources that increase their cultural capital and social power. Additionally, changes in their identity may occur as they become part of the community [20].
A second group of learners includes those that are not immersed in the target language context but require the language for professional purposes. Within this group, a population that has received attention includes professionals in the area of language teaching [14][36][37], particularly teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL). Research with pre-service [11][38] and in-service teachers of English [39] has revealed that language learning investment constitutes a valuable asset because of the need to master the language in the profession [17]. Language educators will teach the language as the object of study and as the means of communication. Moreover, for language education professionals, language learning investment promotes a sense of belongingness [39]. For English language teachers who are not immersed in the target language context, language learning investment contributes to the process of second language identity construction. Motivation and professional needs also constitute the driving force for this group because meaningful interests can be attached to learning investment. Their desire to succeed in language learning for professional development may instantiate engagement and agency when the activities are significant for the accomplishment of previously established language learning goals [40].
Educational stakeholders and institutions are promoting the learning of English in higher education [4][29] and the establishment of EFL requirements [9]. This policy aims to enhance the success and level of competitiveness of future professionals [4][27][29]. Within this context, attention should be paid to the factors that contribute to learning investment among learner populations that will require English language competencies in professions outside of language teaching. To date, qualitative insights into what people from different higher education programs think about EFL learning come, for instance, from the work of Diep and Hieu, who used questionnaires and interviews with students in Engineering and Technology, Economic and Business Administration, Health Science and Social Sciences and Humanities [9]. In the study, the participants acknowledged the necessity of learning English during their education and recognized that personal motivation and attitudes affect the quality of language learning [9]. Although the participants came from different programs, they indicated that English constitutes an add-on qualification that can translate into better job opportunities and the chance to communicate with colleagues for business or research. However, the learning environment, the curriculum and the quality of teaching may have an impact on language learning outcomes.
In a different study, Lacka-Badura elicited data from students enrolled in different areas of studies such as Management, Tourism, Economics, Finance and Accounting and International Economic Relations, among others. As the participants had some previous English language learning experience, the author indicated the students’ needs and expectations which should be considered to enhance learners’ motivation and engagement [27]. Across different professions, learners see then that the learning of an additional language can pave the road for a good future. Nonetheless, as mentioned by Amorati [29], their vision might lay the foundation of language learning necessity, but it is not enough to understand whether the individuals actually engage in and become agents of their own learning. The aforementioned findings from previous qualitative research in higher education provide some insights into the dimensions that seem to contribute to language learning investment, particularly among future language teachers. Among other populations of learners in higher education, the evidence from individual cases instantiates the necessity to learn the language and the benefits the students believe that they will have in their future profession. These findings are informative but build upon individual experiences. Therefore, questions arise about the dimensions of investment [17][26][32] that may come into play as higher education students encounter compulsory EFL learning. Among these learners, there is a need to explore language learning investment vis-à-vis the state-mandated language learning opportunities they have [9][10].

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/educsci13040370

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