Modulation of Gut Microbiome for Auditory Disorders: History
View Latest Version
Please note this is an old version of this entry, which may differ significantly from the current revision.
Contributor:
Dimitri A. Godur
,
Alexa J. Denton
,
Nicolas Eshraghi
,
Jeenu Mittal
,
Jaimee Cooper
,
Moeed Moosa
,
Rahul Mittal

The gut microbiome has been shown to play a pivotal role in health and disease. Recently, there has been increased interest within the auditory community to explore the role of the gut microbiome in the auditory system and its implications for hearing disorders such as sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL), otitis media, and tinnitus. Studies have suggested that modulating the gut microbiome using probiotics as well as with diets high in monounsaturated and omega-3 fatty acids is associated with a reduction in inflammation prevalence in auditory disorders. 

  • microbiome
  • sensorineural hearing loss
  • otitis media
  • tinnitus
  • probiotics

1. Probiotic and Prebiotic Use in Medicine

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), probiotics refer to live microorganisms, such as bacteria and yeast, that lead to a health benefit when consumed in an adequate quantity [1][2]. In general, their beneficial effects augment and maintainhealthy microbiota [3][4]. Various studies have evaluated the use of probiotics, with the most dominant microbial strains used being Lactobacillus genera, Bifidobacterium genera, Lactococcus spp., Streptococcus thermophilus, and the yeast Saccharomyces boulardii [5]. The mechanism of action of each of these species and their effects on gut health vary; however, it has been suggested that the various fermentation properties and resultant metabolites enhance the inherent immune system [6]. As a result, they are thought to reduce the colonization of pathogenic bacteria by enhancing the phagocytic activity of leukocytes and stimulating antibody production [7].

1.1. Prebiotics

Prebiotics are micronutrients that foster the growth and activity of a beneficial gut microbiome. They are shown to be useful in diseases affecting the GI system, immune system, and nervous system in humans [8][9][10][11][12][13]. Harmful microbes which stimulate the immune system can be decreased and the cytokine environment can be modulated with prebiotics. Fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS) administration has been shown to modulate the immune response to vaccines in children. In addition, neural pathways and endocrine pathways have been shown to be modulated with prebiotics. FOS and galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) have regulatory effects on neurotransmitters and synaptic proteins [8]. The beneficial effects of prebiotics may be used for the treatment of auditory disorders. While there are no approved clinical applications for prebiotics in otological conditions, there are preclinical animal model investigations that have shown positive results in reducing oxidative stress and consequently improving hearing function [14].

1.2. Clinical Uses of Probiotics and Prebiotics

Probiotics and prebiotics can be used for the prevention and even the treatment of specific diseases, as they can regulate systemic and local immune system activity [15]. Some probiotics even propagate wound healing and minimize the risk of perioperative infection, which has become an increasingly relevant complication of head and neck procedures [16]. Probiotics and prebiotics have been used as a therapeutic tool for various GI disorders due to their anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects. More recently, studies have shown the efficacy of probiotics in otolaryngological conditions such as rhinosinusitis, obstructive sleep apnea, and head and neck cancer; however, there is still a paucity of the literature evaluating their utility in otological disorders [16][17][18].

2. Gut Health and Sensorineural Hearing Loss (SNHL)

Studies have observed that the “leaky gut” has also led to cases of SNHL, particularly when resulting from a high-fat diet, which induces gut dysbiosis and increases the permeability of the blood–labyrinth barrier [19]. Gut dysbiosis is an imbalance in the microbiota in the gut and serves as a predisposing factor for several disorders [20]. Bacterial metabolites can enter the bloodstream from the gut and cross the blood–labyrinth barrier, causing chronic inflammation of the cochlea from the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the production of reactive oxygen species [19][20]. Cases of SNHL were especially prevalent as a secondary condition for patients with inflammatory bowel disease [20]. Sujlana and colleagues found that in a cohort of children with profound hearing loss, the administration of probiotic mouthwash decreased the risk of periodontal infection, although further studies are warranted to identify changes in hearing outcomes [21].

2.1. Fatty Acids and SNHL

The probiotic conversion of nondigestible carbohydrates into short-chain fatty acids could reduce hearing loss. A study by Gopinath and colleagues demonstrated that polyunsaturated fatty acids help to maintain an adequate vascular supply to the cochlea and thus promote healthy auditory function [22][23]. These polyunsaturated fatty acids also attenuate inflammatory processes, decrease blood pressure, and improve vascular reactivity and endothelial function. Curhan and colleagues also demonstrated that the consumption of two or more servings per week of fish as well as a greater intake of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids are associated with a lower risk of hearing loss in women [24]. Further studies are warranted to observe the effects of omega-3 fatty acid intake on aging populations to observe potentially improved hearing outcomes, as elderly populations are the most susceptible to hearing loss [23].

2.2. Inflammatory Bowel Disease and SNHL

Addressing the underlying inflammatory bowel disease when applicable can be a first-line defense in treating auditory disorders through methods such as antibiotics or fecal diversion [19]. While some antibiotics have been known to be a risk factor for inflammatory bowel disease, a combination therapy implementing decreased doses of antibiotics alongside probiotic administration can be further explored, based on their positive results in children as well as decreased antibiotic prescriptions following the administration of probiotics. Furthermore, a healthy diet is essential to help preserve hearing by modulating the health of the gut microbiome. Unfortunately, such a diet greatly conflicts with modern nutritional habits that commonly lead to obesity, poor metabolism, and inflammation [25]. Notably, omega-3 fatty acids, polyphenols, and micronutrients have demonstrated some of the greatest health benefits in modulating gut microbiota [26][27]. Currently, the Mediterranean diet has been shown to modulate the gut microbiota by increasing its diversity and stability, along with maintaining the activity of host immune functions [28][29]. Therefore, adopting the Mediterranean diet may help to prevent gut dysbiosis and inflammatory bowel disease, which can improve GI health and potentially improve hearing outcomes [25].

3. Acute Otitis Media

3.1. Probiotics and AOM

A study by Scott and colleagues demonstrated that probiotics may be an adequate preventative therapy for reducing the incidence of AOM. Investigators used 17 randomized control trials (RCTs) of children with AOM taking probiotics in comparison to control groups [30]. Eleven groups used Lactobacillus-containing probiotics and six groups used Streptococcus-containing probiotics. The study concluded that in children who were not prone to acquiring AOM, the incidence of developing AOM decreased by two-thirds when taking these probiotics compared to those not taking the probiotics [30]. Furthermore, the probiotics also aided in decreasing the number of children taking antibiotics for other infections. However, the probiotics did not help children who were already prone to acquiring AOM [30]. While the study did not provide a concrete definition for children “prone” to AOM, it suggested that the differences were likely due to clinical, pathological, and immunological factors [30]. Further investigations of these factors should be conducted particularly in immunocompromised children, comparing their outcomes of AOM after taking probiotics versus not, as well as with the results in healthy children. Different combination doses of probiotic and antibiotic therapy should also be considered for further study.
Another treatment being studied is the use of Streptococcus salivarius K12, a heavily studied oral commensal streptococcus that has been found to inhibit the growth of pathogens in the oral cavity and nasopharynx while maintaining a high safety profile [31]. Di Pierro and colleagues administered oral K12 tablets daily to 22 children prone to AOM for 90 days. After being examined for episodes of AOM, the children were also subjected to tone audiometry, tympanometry, endonasal endoscopy, otoscopy, and tonsillar examinations [31]. Not only were the episodes of AOM reduced, but positive results were also seen across the other clinical outcomes. The researchers thus concluded that K12 may play an important role in reducing the occurrence of AOM [31], a promising result that should be further investigated with a greater sample size.
A study of toddlers at daycare centers conducted by Stecksen-Blicks and colleagues investigated the use of probiotics and fluoride-supplemented milk. In this investigation, 248 children aged 1–5 were randomly assigned to one of two groups. The intervention group received milk supplemented with Lactobacillus rhamnosus and fluoride, while the control group received standard milk [32]. While the number of absent sick days did not differ between the two groups, in those who received the full 21-month course, the use of probiotics significantly reduced the otitis media infection duration by 60% based on a decrease in the antibiotic therapy duration [32]. Similarly, the Stecksen-Blicks study demonstrated that milk supplemented with both probiotics and fluoride consumed once daily helped to prevent OM [16].
Rautava and colleagues investigated the daily supplementation of a formula with Lactobacillus rhamnosis GG and Bifidobacterium lactis Bb-12 probiotics for infants between 2 and 12 months [33]. The largest reduction in the number of otitis media episodes was found within the first seven months for children who consumed the probiotic-supplemented formula. Only 22% of infants receiving probiotics experienced AOM, while 50% of those receiving the placebo experienced AOM [33]. In addition, the rate of antibiotic usage was reduced from 60% in placebo subjects to 31% in probiotic subjects, further suggesting the benefits of probiotic consumption in reducing the risk of early AOM [33]. These results suggest that aggressive antibiotic intervention may not necessarily be the most efficacious treatment, further hinting at the benefits of a probiotic/antibiotic combination therapy.

3.2. Nasal Administration of Probiotics

A balanced flora in the nasopharynx helps to prevent colonization by pathogenic strains and the subsequent otitis media that occurs. In addition, nasal spray remedies have been found to produce clinical benefits in both alpha-streptococci strains as well as Streptococcus salivarius strains [15]. A study by Roos and colleagues found preventive effects on AOM in which 42% of subjects did not show recurrence when administered one of five strains of Streptococcus probiotic via a nasal spray, in comparison to only 22% that did not show recurrence in the placebo group [34]. In another study, investigators concluded that in the sub-group of children who were colonized with probiotic flora in the nasopharynx, the colonized children experienced fewer episodes of AOM and subsequently required less antibiotic administration when compared to those without colonization [35]. So far, no studies have yet directly compared the effects of probiotics administered orally versus trans-nasally in reducing AOM. However, the results tend to indicate better outcomes when probiotics are administered trans-nasally [9]. Thus, studies investigating the outcomes with different methods of probiotic administration should be further considered.

4. Secretory Otitis Media

Secretory otitis media (SOM) is another common disease in children that is also associated with effusion in the middle ear cavity and is typically a sequela of AOM. Both orally and nasally administered Streptococcus strains yielded promising results in treating SOM. Oral administration of Streptococcus salivarius K12 also conferred improvements in tone audiometry and the palatine tonsil size [16]. K12 is known to produce two lantibiotics that inhibit the growth of Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Moraxella catarrhalis, all of which are involved in the pathogenesis of AOM and pharyngotonsillitis [31]. Another study demonstrated increased spontaneous recovery in children with SOM when taking Streptococcus sanguinis [15]. In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study, investigators found significant protection against SOM in children who took the probiotic versus those who took the placebo [15]. Multiple studies also noted decreases in SOM following administration of a probiotic nasal spray containing Streptococcus sanguinis, which modulates the nasal microbiota instead of the gut, and is subsequently a promising area of study [15].

5. Natural Health Products in Treating Otitis Media

Studies have also investigated the use of natural health products for reducing the number of episodes of AOM. Some of these products, which are generally regarded as safe, include echinacea and xylitol. Echinacea, a North American coneflower, is one of the most popular herbal remedies used for the treatment of upper respiratory infections such as the common cold. It is thought that it enhances the immune system and has anti-inflammatory properties; however, the current literature suggests there may only be a minimal benefit in reducing symptom length and severity [36]. Some studies have further evaluated echinacea’s use as a treatment for AOM. One study by Cohen and colleagues found that echinacea combined with propolis and vitamin C significantly reduced the number of AOM episodes by 68% in comparison to the placebo. However, when studying echinacea alone, there was no decreased risk of AOM in children [37][38]. More recent randomized control trials and meta-analyses found that children with upper respiratory infections who took echinacea did in fact have a significantly decreased risk of complications including AOM [7][39][40]. This suggests that there may be a benefit in using echinacea to prevent AOM.

Xylitol and AOM

Xylitol, a natural sugar used in chewing gum and found in fruits, has also been theorized to treat AOM. Evidence has suggested that in vitro use of xylitol is able to inhibit the growth and attachment of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae, common etiologies of AOM, to nasopharyngeal cells [9]. One of the earlier studies, conducted in 1996, demonstrated that compared to controls, there was a 40% reduction in otitis media with chewing gum, a 30% reduction with syrup, and a 20% reduction with a lozenge, all with fewer antibiotics needed for further treatment. However, there were some side effects such as diarrhea and abdominal discomfort [41]. In contrast to the results from researchers studying echinacea, Azarpazhooh and colleagues concluded that xylitol could help reduce the risk of AOM in children with no active upper respiratory tract infection [36].
Although both echinacea and xylitol have produced varying results, it has been suggested that echinacea can be used to prevent AOM in patients who already have active upper respiratory infections and xylitol may be used in patients with isolated AOM infections. Further studies with large cohorts should be conducted to confirm the efficacy and uses of these therapies in regard to AOM.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/audiolres13050066

References

  1. Mack, D.R. Probiotics-mixed messages. Can. Fam. Physician 2005, 51, 1455–1457.
  2. Yadav, M.K.; Kumari, I.; Singh, B.; Sharma, K.K.; Tiwari, S.K. Probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics: Safe options for next-generation therapeutics. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2022, 106, 505–521.
  3. Kim, S.K.; Guevarra, R.B.; Kim, Y.T.; Kwon, J.; Kim, H.; Cho, J.H.; Kim, H.B.; Lee, J.H. Role of Probiotics in Human Gut Microbiome-Associated Diseases. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2019, 29, 1335–1340.
  4. Wieërs, G.; Belkhir, L.; Enaud, R.; Leclercq, S.; de Foy, J.M.P.; Dequenne, I.; de Timary, P.; Cani, P.D. How Probiotics Affect the Microbiota. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol. 2019, 9, 454.
  5. Suez, J.; Zmora, N.; Segal, E.; Elinav, E. The pros, cons, and many unknowns of probiotics. Nat. Med. 2019, 25, 716–729.
  6. van Zyl, W.F.; Deane, S.M.; Dicks, L.M.T. Molecular insights into probiotic mechanisms of action employed against intestinal pathogenic bacteria. Gut Microbes 2020, 12, 1831339.
  7. Nathan, A.S.; Levi, J.R.; O’Reilly, R. Complementary/Integrative Medicine for Pediatric Otitis Media. Otolaryngol. Clin. North. Am. 2022, 55, 1055–1075.
  8. Davani-Davari, D.; Negahdaripour, M.; Karimzadeh, I.; Seifan, M.; Mohkam, M.; Masoumi, S.J.; Berenjian, A.; Ghasemi, Y. Prebiotics: Definition, Types, Sources, Mechanisms, and Clinical Applications. Foods 2019, 8, 92.
  9. Xie, X.; He, Y.; Li, H.; Yu, D.; Na, L.; Sun, T.; Zhang, D.; Shi, X.; Xia, Y.; Jiang, T.; et al. Effects of prebiotics on immunologic indicators and intestinal microbiota structure in perioperative colorectal cancer patients. Nutrition 2019, 61, 132–142.
  10. Hall, D.A.; Voigt, R.M.; Cantu-Jungles, T.M.; Hamaker, B.; Engen, P.A.; Shaikh, M.; Raeisi, S.; Green, S.J.; Naqib, A.; Forsyth, C.B.; et al. An open label, non-randomized study assessing a prebiotic fiber intervention in a small cohort of Parkinson’s disease participants. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 926.
  11. Birkeland, E.; Gharagozlian, S.; Birkeland, K.I.; Valeur, J.; Måge, I.; Rud, I.; Aas, A.-M. Prebiotic effect of inulin-type fructans on faecal microbiota and short-chain fatty acids in type 2 diabetes: A randomised controlled trial. Eur. J. Nutr. 2020, 59, 3325–3338.
  12. Buhaș, M.C.; Candrea, R.; Gavrilaș, L.I.; Miere, D.; Tătaru, A.; Boca, A.; Cătinean, A. Transforming Psoriasis Care: Probiotics and Prebiotics as Novel Therapeutic Approaches. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 1122.
  13. Slavin, J. Fiber and prebiotics: Mechanisms and health benefits. Nutrients 2013, 5, 1417–1435.
  14. Kondo, T.; Saigo, S.; Ugawa, S.; Kato, M.; Yoshikawa, Y.; Miyoshi, N.; Tanabe, K. Prebiotic effect of fructo-oligosaccharides on the inner ear of DBA/2 J mice with early-onset progressive hearing loss. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2020, 75, 108247.
  15. Czibulka, A. Probiotics for Otolaryngologic Disorders. Otolaryngol. Clin. N. Am. 2022, 55, 939–946.
  16. Bourdillon, A.T.; Edwards, H.A. Review of probiotic use in otolaryngology. Am. J. Otolaryngol. 2021, 42, 102883.
  17. Cervin, A.U. The Potential for Topical Probiotic Treatment of Chronic Rhinosinusitis, a Personal Perspective. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol. 2017, 7, 530.
  18. Cai, Y.; Juszczak, H.M.; Cope, E.K.; Goldberg, A.N. The microbiome in obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep 2021, 44, zsab061.
  19. Kociszewska, D.; Vlajkovic, S.M. The Association of Inflammatory Gut Diseases with Neuroinflammatory and Auditory Disorders. Front. Biosci. 2022, 14, 8.
  20. Denton, A.J.; Godur, D.A.; Mittal, J.; Bencie, N.B.; Mittal, R.; Eshraghi, A.A. Recent Advancements in Understanding the Gut Microbiome and the Inner Ear Axis. Otolaryngol. Clin. N. Am. 2022, 55, 1125–1137.
  21. Sujlana, A.; Goyal, R.; Pannu, P.; Opal, S.; Bansal, P. Visual pedagogy and probiotics for hearing impaired children: A pilot study. J. Indian. Soc. Pedod. Prev. Dent. 2017, 35, 353–358.
  22. Gopinath, B.; Flood, V.M.; Rochtchina, E.; McMahon, C.M.; Mitchell, P. Consumption of omega-3 fatty acids and fish and risk of age-related hearing loss. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 92, 416–421.
  23. Fiorini, A.C.; Costa Filho, O.A.; Scorza, F.A. Can you hear me now? The quest for better guidance on omega-3 fatty acid consumption to combat hearing loss. Clinics 2016, 71, 420–422.
  24. Curhan, S.G.; Eavey, R.D.; Wang, M.; Rimm, E.R.; Curhan, G.C. Fish and fatty acid consumption and the risk of hearing loss in women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2014, 100, 1371–1377.
  25. Rinninella, E.; Cintoni, M.; Raoul, P.; Lopetuso, L.R.; Scaldaferri, F.; Pulcini, G.; Miggiano, G.A.D.; Gasbarrini, A.; Mele, M.C. Food Components and Dietary Habits: Keys for a Healthy Gut Microbiota Composition. Nutrients 2019, 11, 2393.
  26. Kaliannan, K.; Wang, B.; Li, X.Y.; Kim, K.J.; Kang, J.X. A host-microbiome interaction mediates the opposing effects of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids on metabolic endotoxemia. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 11276.
  27. Menni, C.; Zierer, J.; Pallister, T.; Jackson, M.A.; Long, T.; Mohney, R.P.; Steves, C.J.; Spector, T.D.; Valdes, A.M. Omega-3 fatty acids correlate with gut microbiome diversity and production of N-carbamylglutamate in middle aged and elderly women. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 11079.
  28. Garcia-Mantrana, I.; Selma-Royo, M.; Alcantara, C.; Collado, M.C. Shifts on Gut Microbiota Associated to Mediterranean Diet Adherence and Specific Dietary Intakes on General Adult Population. Front. Microbiol. 2018, 9, 890.
  29. De Filippis, F.; Pellegrini, N.; Vannini, L.; Jeffrey, I.B.; La Storia, A.; Laghi, L.; Serrazanetti, D.I.; Di Cagno, R.; Ferrocino, I.; Lazzi, C.; et al. High-level adherence to a Mediterranean diet beneficially impacts the gut microbiota and associated metabolome. Gut 2016, 65, 1812–1821.
  30. Scott, A.M.; Clark, J.; Julien, B.; Islam, F.; Roos, K.; Grimwood, K.; Little, P.; Del Mar, C.B. Probiotics for preventing acute otitis media in children. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2019, 6, CD012941.
  31. Di Pierro, F.; Di Pasquale, D.; Di Cicco, M. Oral use of Streptococcus salivarius K12 in children with secretory otitis media: Preliminary results of a pilot, uncontrolled study. Int. J. Gen. Med. 2015, 8, 303–308.
  32. Stecksén-Blicks, C.; Sjöström, I.; Twetman, S. Effect of long-term consumption of milk supplemented with probiotic lactobacilli and fluoride on dental caries and general health in preschool children: A cluster-randomized study. Caries Res. 2009, 43, 374–381.
  33. Rautava, S.; Salminen, S.; Isolauri, E. Specific probiotics in reducing the risk of acute infections in infancy--a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br. J. Nutr. 2009, 101, 1722–1726.
  34. Roos, K.; Håkansson, E.G.; Holm, S. Effect of recolonisation with interfering alpha streptococci on recurrences of acute and secretory otitis media in children: Randomised placebo controlled trial. BMJ 2001, 322, 210–212.
  35. Marchisio, P.; Santagati, M.; Scillato, M.; Baggi, E.; Fattizzo, M.; Rosazza, C.; Stefani, S.; Esposito, S.; Principi, N. Streptococcus salivarius 24SMB administered by nasal spray for the prevention of acute otitis media in otitis-prone children. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2015, 34, 2377–2383.
  36. Karsch-Völk, M.; Barrett, B.; Kiefer, D.; Bauer, R.; Ardjomand-Woelkart, K.; Linde, K. Echinacea for preventing and treating the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2014, 2, CD000530.
  37. Cohen, H.A.; Varsano, I.; Kahan, E.; Sarrell, E.M.; Uziel, Y. Effectiveness of an herbal preparation containing echinacea, propolis, and vitamin C in preventing respiratory tract infections in children: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2004, 158, 217–221.
  38. Wahl, R.A.; Aldous, M.B.; Worden, K.A.; Grant, K.L. Echinacea purpurea and osteopathic manipulative treatment in children with recurrent otitis media: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2008, 8, 56.
  39. Schapowal, A.; Klein, P.; Johnston, S.L. Echinacea reduces the risk of recurrent respiratory tract infections and complications: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Adv. Ther. 2015, 32, 187–200.
  40. Ogal, M.; Johnston, S.L.; Klein, P.; Schoop, R. Echinacea reduces antibiotic usage in children through respiratory tract infection prevention: A randomized, blinded, controlled clinical trial. Eur. J. Med. Res. 2021, 26, 33.
  41. Uhari, M.; Kontiokari, T.; Koskela, M.; Niemelä, M. Xylitol chewing gum in prevention of AOM: Double-blind randomised trials. Br. Med. J. 1996, 313, 1180–1184.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
This entry is offline, you can click here to edit this entry!
ScholarVision Creations
Feedback