Rapid urbanisation in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) has resulted in significant population expansion in cities. The United Nations estimates that over the next three decades, more than 66 percent of the world’s population will live in cities; urbanisation is set to be one of the twenty-first century’s most transformative trends [1]. At present, rapid urbanisation occurs mainly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, leading to a shortage of housing in cities, consequently resulting in the formation of informal settlements by the urban poor. Such settlements are characterised by makeshift shelters, overcrowding, poor sanitation, unemployment, and insecurity [2]. Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest proportion of slum residents, accounting for 62 percent of the urban population, compared with 35 percent in Southern Asia, 24 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean, and 13 percent in North Africa [3]. This poses many challenges in relation to the organisation and provision of infrastructure, basic services, food, health, education, and employment. In addition, this phenomenon is inefficient and unsustainable, placing tremendous pressure on natural resources [1,4].

Housing is more than just buildings, dwellings, or places of abode; it includes utilities; infrastructure; recreational, educational, and commercial services; as well as economic and cultural arrangements to promote comfortable living in the built environment [5]. Housing facilitates social, psychological, political, economic, and cultural norms and behaviours, which in turn shape lifestyles and the surrounding natural environment [6]. The provision of adequate housing can contribute significantly to an individual’s wider social, environmental, and economic context [7]. Furthermore, housing has implications for the natural environment and the wider regionally built ecosystems. Poor housing results in inadequate sanitation, which has repercussions for healthcare, mental well-being, education, employability, capital investment, governance, and development. Therefore, the provision of adequate housing is a key requirement, especially for low-income households that are sensitive to the vulnerabilities of poor health and lack the education or political voice needed to find solutions to the problems they encounter. According to estimates by the World Health Organization, poor housing in LMICs leads to approximately two million deaths annually [8]. The development of housing structures was primarily motivated by the desire to meet man’s fundamental needs: shelter, safety, and comfort [9]. However, suitable provisions vary from person to person, and house design and materials should naturally reflect users’ lifestyles and local building practices. In addition to being a physical requirement, housing also has cultural, economic, and social significance. The psychological well-being of a community’s people is significantly affected by the housing and architecture surrounding them [10].

Housing addresses the fundamental requirement for shelter, significantly impacting quality of life, health, safety, and welfare [8]. Often ranked second in the hierarchy of human needs after food, this highlights its importance to modern society. Housing inherently reflects a society’s cultural, social, and economic values while providing tangible evidence of a nation’s civilisation [20]. Factors such as location, materials, and construction aesthetics influence individuals’ experiences concerning security, health, and well-being, affecting both current and future generations [21,22], leading to adverse intergenerational health and well-being consequences, weakened educational systems, and persistent poverty cycles [23].

Housing is integral to sustainable development [24] due to its reliance on natural resources, which have been significantly depleted by the housing boom. Chiu [24] defines sustainable housing development as meeting the present generation’s needs without compromising future generations’ ability to fulfil their needs. The social dimension of sustainability, as defined by Woodcraft et al. [25], focuses on creating successful, sustainable places that promote well-being by understanding people’s needs in their living and working environments. Despite its importance, social sustainability has been largely overlooked in mainstream debates [25], with integrated policies addressing the social, cultural, environmental, and economic aspects of housing being particularly scarce in low- and middle-income countries.

Low-cost housing projects frequently offer substandard accommodation with little regard for residents’ lifestyles, thereby exacerbating cultural, social, religious, and geopolitical tensions in vulnerable communities [21]. For instance, in Nigeria, cultural and religious beliefs shape community activities and influence residential architecture [26]. Ignoring these preferences may limit women’s access to education and commercial opportunities, contributing to wider geopolitical ramifications such as the Boko Haram insurgency [27]. Local participation in planning and implementation can better address users’ needs and foster a sense of responsibility and ownership. Culturally appropriate built environments are thus integral to sustainable housing [22]. The New Urban Agenda, adopted at the United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (2016), sets global standards for sustainable urban development by collaborating with partners at all levels of government [1].

Civilisations build homes with varying styles, reflecting the evolution of cultural values. The organisation and utilisation of space are closely linked to cultural traditions, best comprehended by local populations. The lack of consideration for socio-cultural factors, such as family values, size, religion, and ethnocentric practices, poses a significant obstacle to housing satisfaction [20]. Cultural adequacy is emphasised as a crucial criterion for adequate housing in the International Right to Adequate Housing [22]. Sustainable housing can substantially mitigate issues related to population growth, urbanisation, poverty, and climate change. By introducing a planning component, it encourages governments and stakeholders to contemplate provision creatively, reorienting the focus towards the complex nature of housing and the experiences of the urban poor. Sustainable housing necessitates the integration of various sustainability aspects; however, its implementation is rare in LMICs. Studies indicate that neglecting one aspect of sustainability leads to multiple housing vulnerabilities [21].

Goal 11 of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals aims to ensure that everyone has access to adequate, safe, and affordable housing by 2030 [12]. However, the concept of “adequacy” varies from country to country due to cultural, social, environmental, and economic factors. Since the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, the right to adequate housing has been recognised as an essential component of the right to an adequate standard of living [28,29]. The Habitat II global plan of action document highlights the commitment of all levels of government, the community, and the private sector to achieve the principal goal of adequate shelter for all through an enabling process in which individuals, families, and their communities play a central role [28]. However, studies have shown that the problem of housing is universal, as virtually all countries face the problem of providing adequate housing for their citizens. The assumption that a dwelling’s physical and structural adequacy alone is a good indicator of its suitability for providing satisfactory housing to its occupants has frequently contributed to the failure of housing delivery programmes for low-income earners [20].

2.4. User-Centred Design