Phytochemicals: History
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Guendalina Zuccari
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Silvana Alfei

 The bioactive chemical compounds responsible for these benefits are known as phytochemicals (PHYs). Specifically, PHYs are defined as bioactive chemical compounds found in plants, such as fruits, vegetables, grains, and other plant-derived foods, that may supply health benefits beyond basic nutrition and could help to reduce the risk of major chronic diseases. PHYs are generally produced by plants to help themselves resist fungi, bacteria, and plant virus infections and also to hamper their consumption by insects and other animals

  • nanoemulsion techniques
  • bioactive constituents of plant
  • phytochemicals (PHYs)

1. Phytochemicals and Nutraceuticals: Not Quite the Same

Both PHYs, also known as phytonutrients, and nutraceuticals are bioactive compounds that can be found in edible products possessing beneficial properties capable of enhancing human health and are commonly ingested with the diet. Anyway, while nutraceuticals are essential nutrients for human life and are necessarily present in edible products derived from animals, plants, or fungi, PHYs are non-nutrients and exclusively originate from plants [1]. Although a lower intake of PHYs does not cause defects, these compounds can be invaluable to human health, and a diet rich in PHYs is strongly connected to better health [2]. In vitro studies have demonstrated that PHYs are multifunctional compounds with health-promoting properties like those of conventional drugs and can be considered “pharmaceutical-grade compounds”. They can improve the ability to detox, boost the immune system, and help to protect against age-related diseases, such as diabetes, heart disease, and osteoporosis [2].

2. Phytochemicals: An Overview

It has been reported that scientists have already identified over 5000 different classes of PHYs. Anyway, many more remain undiscovered, and much more has to be learned about their potential benefits [3]. Although PHYs can derive from both edible and non-edible plants [4], all plant-based foods, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, and herbs, contain them. Generally, PHYs confer to the plant-derived food containing them a particular bright color, but foods without these characteristics can contain these healthy promoters, as well (Table 1). Green, purple, red, blue, or yellow vegetables and fruits contain colored PHYs [3][5][6], but non-brightly colored potatoes, cauliflower, nuts such as almonds, cashews, and hazelnuts, tea, and dark chocolate also contain several PHYs (Table 1) [3][7][8][9]. Moreover, essential oils (EOs), including those from pine needles, cedar, and lavender, are used as health promoters due to their PHY contents (Table 1) [10][11][12].
Table 1. Sources of PHYs and their main benefits.
Edible Plants Essential Oils Benefits
Brightly Colored Not Brightly Colored
Berries Potatoes
Almonds
Pecans
Pistachios
Cauliflower
Walnuts
Cashews
Hazelnuts
Tea
Dark chocolate
Cacao beans
Barley
Beans
Lentils
Rice
Coffee
Mung beans
Soybeans
Cloves
Cinnamon
Cumin
Nutmeg		 Pine needles
Cedar
Lavender		 Boost the immune system [13]
Combat OS and FR [14]
⇓ Blood sugar levels [14][15]
⇓ Blood pressure [13]
⇓ Diabetes risk [14][16]
⇓ Serious health issues [14][16]
Prevent chronic disease [13][14]
Protect from pathogens [17][18][19]
Protect brain and liver [13]
⇓ Cholesterol [13]
⇓ Inflammation [14][20][21]
Support detoxification [14][22]
Ward off osteoporosis [13]
Cranberries
Blackberries
Strawberries
Cherries
Currants
Grapes
Plums
Purple potatoes
Red Cabbage
Cabbage
Kohlrabi
Broccoli sprouts
Apples
Bananas
Peaches
Antiparasitic herbs
Egg yolks
Orange peppers
Oranges
Pumpkins
Yellow corn
Kale
Parsley
Romain lettuce
Spinach
Olive oil
Melons
OS = oxidative stress; FR = free radicals; ⇓ reduces, lowers.

2.1. Specific Sources and Benefits of the Main Types of PHYs

The most common PHYs are polyphenols, carotenoids, coumarins, indoles, organosulfur compounds, isothiocyanates, saponins, tannins, phenylpropanoids, anthraquinones, ginsenosides, terpenoids, etc. [23]. In Table 2 below, the most relevant PHYs, their sources, and the associated health-promoting effects were reported [24][25].
Table 2. Most relevant types of PHYs, their sources, and the associated beneficial health effects.
PHYs Sources Health Benefits
Carotenoids [26][27] Carrots, tomatoes, parsley
Orange and green leafy vegetables
Chenopods, fenugreek
Spinach, cabbage, radish, turnips		 Act as antioxidants
Protect against uterine, prostate, colorectal, lung
digestive tract cancers
Phytosterols [27][28] Vegetables, nuts, fruits, seeds Suppress the growth of diverse tumor cell lines
Limonoids [27] Citrus fruits Inhibit phase I enzymes and induce phase II detoxification enzymes in liver
Provide protection to lung tissue, detoxify enzymes
Curcuminoids [27] Turmeric, curry powder, mango, ginger Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidative
Anti-depressive
Protective against hay fever and depression, ⇓ cholesterol and itching risk
Indole compounds [27]
(indole-3-carbinol)		 Cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, kale
Brussels sprouts		 Strong antioxidant, DNA protector, chemo-preventive, anticancer
⇑ Heart health
Alkaloids [29] Plants (also animals and bacteria) Antimalarial, antiasthma, anticancer, cholinomimetics
Vasodilatory, antiarrhythmic
Analgesic, antibacterial, antihyperglycemic, psychotropic, stimulant
Phytoprostanes [30]
Phytofurans [30]		 Almonds, vegetal oils, olives, algae
Passion fruit, nut kernels, rice		 Immunomodulators, anti-inflammatory, antitumor
Polyphenols [27] Fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, legumes
Chocolates, oilseeds		 Action against free radicals, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergenic
Inhibition of platelet aggregation, protective against hepatotoxins
Flavonoids * [27] Fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, legumes
Chocolates, oilseeds		 Action against free radicals, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergenic
Inhibition of platelet aggregation, protective against hepatotoxins
Iso-flavonoids ** [27] Fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, legumes
Chocolates, oilseeds		 Action against free radicals, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergenic
Inhibition of platelet aggregation, protective against hepatotoxins
Anthocyanidins ** [27][31][32][33]
Anthocyanins ** [27][31][32][33]		 Fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, legumes
Chocolates, oilseeds		 Act against free radicals, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergenic
Inhibit platelet aggregation, protect against hepatotoxins
Help control weight, prevent heart disease
Increase insulin sensitivity
Reduce inflammation, decrease diabetic complications, protect DNA
Protect the brain
Boost other PHYs and phytonutrients
Glucosinolates [27] Cruciferous vegetables Protection against cancer of colon, rectum, stomach
Phytoestrogens [27] Legumes, berries, whole grains, cereals
Red wine, peanuts, red grapes		 Protection against bone loss, heart disease, cardiovascular diseases
Protection against breast and uterine cancers
Terpenoids [27]
Isoprenoids [27]		 Mosses, liverworts, algae, lichens, mushrooms Antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antiviral, antiallergic, anti-inflammatory Chemotherapeutic, antihyperglycemic, antispasmodic
Fibers [34] Fruits and vegetables (green leafy), oats ⇓ Blood cholesterol, ⇓ cardiovascular disease
Polysaccharides [27] Fruits and vegetables Antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antiviral, antiallergic, anti-inflammatory
⇓ Serum, ⇑ defense mechanisms
Saponins [27] Oats, leaves, flowers, green fruits of tomato Protection against pathogens, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory
Antiulcer agent
Tannins [27] Cranberries, currants, blackberries, apples, grapes, peaches
Strawberries, almonds
Hazelnuts, pecans, pistachios, walnuts, barley beans, lentils, rice Tea, cacao beans
Dark chocolate, antiparasitic herbs		 Act as antioxidants, fight pathogens, ⇓ blood pressure, ⇓ inflammation
⇓ Serious health risks
Regulate the immune system
Lutein [27]
Zeaxanthin [27]		 Egg yolks, orange peppers, oranges, pumpkins, yellow corn, kale Parsley, romaine lettuce, spinach, pistachios, olive oil Protect retina from damage, ⇑ eye function
⇑ Memory and brain function
Promote the body’s use of insulin, ⇑ skin health, ⇓ blood pressure
⇓ Inflammation
Support heart health
Eugenol [35] Cloves, cinnamon, cumin, nutmeg, coffee
Mung beans, soybeans, bananas, melons
Strawberries, tomatoes		 Acts as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant, eliminates parasites, fights fungi
Inhibits serious health concerns, protects the brain and the liver,
⇓ Bacterial biofilm
Supports heart and stomach health
⇑ Improved, higher; ⇓ reduced, lower; * a subgroup of polyphenols; ** a subgroup of flavonoids.
As mentioned above, the known PHYs are in the thousands. In Figure 1 and Figure 2, the chemical structures of the most common polyphenols (Figure 1) and of other relevant PHYs (Figure 2) with their properties [1][2][24][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53] were reported.
Figure 1. Structures and pharmacological properties of some plant-derived polyphenols. ROS = reactive oxygen species.
Figure 2. Chemical structures of some relevant PHYs.

2.2. Let Us Eat in Color

Since PHYs confer particular food colors, colored foods surely contain PHYs and possess the same benefits as PHYs having the same color. So, by eating foods from all of the different color groups, a wide range of different PHYs can be assumed, with a consequent broad spectrum of benefits [54]. Table 3 below reports the general subdivision of plant-related foods into the different color groups.
Table 3. General classification of the different color groups *.
Color Group Foods PHYs Properties Refs.
Green Asparagus, avocados, celery, cucumbers
Green beans, green peppers, kale, kiwi
Spinach, zucchini		 EGCG, glucosinolates
Indoles, isoflavones
Isothiocyanates, lutein, and zeaxanthin
Sulforaphane		 Promote wound healing and healthy gums
Support arteries, blood cells, eyes, liver, and lungs		 [2][54]
Purple Black beans, blackberries
Eggplants, elderberries, plums
Purple cabbage, purple grapes, raisins		 Anthocyanins, flavonoids, phenols
Tannins, RES		 Protect against serious health issues
Support arteries, bones, brain, cognition, healthy aging, and heart		 [2][54]
Red Cherries, cranberries, kidney beans
Red beans, strawberries, tomatoes
Watermelon		 Anthocyanins, ellagic acid, eugenol
Hesperidin
Lycopene, tannins, quercetin		 Protect against heart disease and other serious health issues
Support prostate, urinary tract, and DNA health		 [2][54]
Yellow Apricots, cantaloupe, carrots, grapefruit
Yellow pears, yellow peppers
Yellow winter squash		 α-Carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, Lutein, zeaxanthin, hesperidin Boost the immune system, support heart and vision health [2][54]
White Apples, cauliflower
Great northern beans
Mushrooms, onions		 Allicin, ECGC, glucosinolates, indoles Tannins, quercetin Protect against heart disease and
other serious health issues
Support arteries, bones, and circulation		 [2]
* The present table was constructed by the authors using information found in the literature [2]; the row color reproduces the color of PHYs contained in the reported foods, which are responsible for the food’s coloration and appearance.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/ijms24129824

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