Trends in Hydrogen Storage | Encyclopedia MDPI

Trends in Hydrogen Storage: History

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Contributor:

Khaoula Adeli

Mourad Nachtane

Abdessamad Faik

Dennoun Saifaoui

Abdelkader Boulezhar

Hydrogen is one of the most abundant elements in the universe and ranks as the initial element on the periodic table. Hydrogen storage is one of the most difficult tasks. Hydrogen is kept in special materials and high-pressure tanks, such as those seen in such vehicles as cars and trains. These tanks are not only huge and expensive to construct, but they are also unsuitable for recycling and long-term storage. Because of this, researchers from all around the world are working to find ways to address these limitations and fully use hydrogen. Hydrogen has the advantage of being able to be kept in a variety of forms, including gaseous, liquid, and sometimes solid, despite the fact that storage poses major difficulties.

hydrogen generation
hydrogen storage

1. Current Hydrogen Storage

The various types of hydrogen storage systems now in use are depicted in Figure 1 ^[1]^[2]. Compressed gas and cryogenic liquid are the two types of hydrogen storage that are most often used. In various shapes, sizes, and capacities, metal or composite cylinders or tanks are used to store compressed hydrogen gas. Often, the gas is compressed to pressures between 350 and 700 bar, requiring a significant amount of energy. High pressures also put a strain on container materials, which can lead to wear and failure over time. Cryogenic liquid hydrogen is stored at very low temperatures (−253 °C) in specially designed containers that minimize heat transmission. Although this method has a higher energy density than compressed gas, cryogenic storage and transportation systems are complicated and costly. Additionally, the danger of asphyxiation and frostbite makes it crucial to handle and store cryogenic liquids carefully. Chemical storage in metal hydrides, chemical hydrides, and ammonia are further hydrogen storage possibilities being considered. These technologies have the potential to offer higher energy densities and lower operating pressures than compressed gas storage, but they also come with their own set of technical and financial difficulties ^[3].

Figure 1. Current hydrogen storage methods ^[1]^[2].

Hydrogen storage containers necessitate the use of robust materials that can resist high pressures while also preventing leaks. In the design of hydrogen storage tanks, materials including metals, polymers, and carbon fibers are frequently employed. Composite materials have played a significant role in the development of the green hydrogen and ammonia industry. One application of composites in this industry is in the construction of pressure vessels used for storing hydrogen and ammonia. These pressure vessels require materials that can withstand high pressures and offer superior resistance to hydrogen and ammonia permeation. Composite materials, such as carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs), are ideal for this purpose due to their high strength-to-weight ratio and excellent resistance to permeation ^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]. One important factor affecting hydrogen’s compatibility with storage materials is its interaction with metals. This interaction can have both chemical and physical effects: embrittlement, wet corrosion, and dry corrosion ^[9]. Under normal conditions, atmospheric corrosion is a rare chemical reaction that occurs between a dry gas and a metal, resulting in the slow erosion of the thickness of the tank wall ^[10]. At high temperatures, hydrides may be generated when hydrogen reacts with certain metals. As the temperature decreases below a specific point, known as the “no ductility” temperature, some metals can become more brittle and lose their ductility property ^[11]. Cryogenic metal storage tanks have been involved in numerous accidents, attributed to cold embrittlement ^[12]. The results of various investigations that looked into how storage materials interacted with hydrogen are compiled in Table 1. The precise mechanisms causing the phenomenon are still unknown, despite the fact that component failure may be a result. A deep understanding of the storage material’s interactions with hydrogen is required in order to choose suitable materials for storing it.

Table 1. A hydrogen embrittlement mechanism in several materials and alloys used for hydrogen storage applications ^[13].

Materials	Mechanisms	Ref
Stainless steel	Hydrogen diffuses into the grain boundaries, mixing with carbon to form methane gas, which boosts system pressure and causes breaking.	^[14]
Carbon steel	The introduction of hydrogen into the material reduces the material’s micromechanical characteristics. The failure of transition from ductile to brittle occurs. The diffusion of hydrogen into the steel material enhances the combined activities of hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity and hydrogen-enhanced decohesion.	^[15]
Aluminum and aluminum alloys	Because of the lower solubility of hydrogen in aluminum at low temperatures, the passage of hydrogen to casting imperfections and drops causes fissures.	^[16]
Copper and copper alloys	Fissures and blisters form as a result of hydrogen diffusion into oxygen-bearing copper and copper alloys annealed in a hydrogen atmosphere. The copper material’s fracture toughness and ductility are reduced.	^[17]
Nickel and nickel-based alloys	Hydrogen adsorption at fracture tips of nickel and nickel-based materials accelerates crack propagation in aqueous hydrogen.	^[18]

2. Latest Hydrogen Storage Technology

Hydrogen storage technology continues to evolve, driven by the increasing demand for clean and sustainable energy solutions. Two notable advancement in this field is the innovative hydrogen storage technology developed by Plasma Kinetics and Leibniz Institute. These technologies described in Figure 2 has the potential to revolutionize various industries and pave the way for a hydrogen-powered future.

Figure 2. Modern ways for storing hydrogen ^[19]^[20].

2.1. Plasma Kinetics

This innovation is the first hydrogen-based energy system to offer carbon-free energy capture, storage, and transport. This technology involves a light-activated nanoscale film that nine to ten times flimsier than human hair but it is able to absorb hydrogen from the air at low temperatures and pressure. This storage process is less expensive than traditional methods, requiring only light to be shone on the film in order to extract hydrogen onto an internal graphite-based structure directly from smokestacks. The technology could capture 99.99% pure hydrogen. Compared to alternative storage technologies, plasma kinetics technology has the following advantages. (1) A dense solid state for storing hydrogen is both secure and nonflammable. This might potentially improve security and lower the risk of accidents or leaks associated with current hydrogen storage methods. (2) In the process of capturing and storing hydrogen, neither pressure nor energy is required. (3) The whole nanophotonic film may be recycled, which could reduce the influence on the environment by minimizing waste. (4) This method can minimize the amount of infrastructure needed for hydrogen storage and distribution, removing the need for pipes and fixed-structure pumping stations. (5) It has quiet operation that reduces noise pollution ^[19].

2.2. POWERPASTE

The Leibniz Institute for Polymer Research Dresden (IPF) in cooperation with Dresden’s Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Technology and Advanced Materials (IFAM) developed new technology based on solid magnesium hydride in the form of a goop called POWERPASTE. This matter has an approximately 10% hydrogen capacity, which means that 1 kg of hydrogen weighs the same as 10 kg of POWERPASTE with a power range of 100 W to 10 kW. The hydrogen is released when POWERPASTE comes into contact with any specific type of water. It can use a variety of different water sources, including tap water and even salt water. This technology provides several advantages: (1) its composition is not toxic and is safe, and it may be transported without any special safety precautions or worries; (2) it has a 5-year storage life, making it a reliable and practical option for storing hydrogen; (3) it is easily recyclable and is produced at a low cost of roughly €2/kg ^[20]. The parts of a POWERPASTE power supply system are depicted in Figure 3. It has three main parts: a hydrogen generator, a water tank, and a POWERPASTE cartridge.

Figure 3. POWERPASTE-based power system ^[20].

Table 2 presents a comparison between the plasma kinetics and POWER-PASTE technologies, highlighting their respective characteristics and performance metrics.

Table 2. Comparison between the plasma kinetics and POWERPASTE technologies. ^[19]^[20].

Storage/Feature	Plasma Kinetics	POWERPASTE	Compressed	Liquid	Metal Hydride
Temp/Press stored	25 °C/1 bar	Ambient	25 °C/350–700 bar	−252.87 °C/1 bar	+175 °C/20 bar
Energy	8.7 kWh/kg	1.6 kWh/kg	1.8–6.5 kWh/kg	11.5 kWh/kg	34.8 kWh/kg
Flammability	Nonflammable	Nonflammable	Flammable	Flammable	Flammable
Explosive in air	Nonexplosive	Nonexplosive	Explosive	Explosive	Non-explosive
Stored Molecule	MgHX Hybrid	MgH₂	H₂ covalent	H₂ covalent	MgH₂ Hybrid

Generating and storing hydrogen on a large scale is a challenge that requires additional study and development. Those technologies will become more widely available and cost-effective in the next few years, making hydrogen a more viable option for large-scale energy generation and storage. Table 3 provides a comprehensive summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the latest hydrogen storage technologies. It offers a concise overview of the strengths and weaknesses associated with each technology, allowing for a quick comparison and evaluation of their respective merits. By examining this table, readers can gain valuable insights into the various aspects that contribute to the effectiveness and feasibility of these storage methods, enabling them to make informed decisions based on their specific requirements and priorities.

Table 3. Comparative analysis of hydrogen storage technologies.

Technology	Pros	Cons	Ref
Plasma Kinetics	Offers a dense solid-state storage solution for hydrogen. Improves security and reduces the risk of accidents or leaks. Does not require high pressure or additional energy input during the hydrogen capture and storage process. The nanophotonic film used in the technology is recyclable. Minimizes waste and reduces environmental impact. Minimizes the need for extensive infrastructure such as pipelines and fixed structures for hydrogen storage and distribution. Operates quietly, minimizing noise pollution.	Requires further research and development to optimize efficiency and scalability for practical applications. Cost-effectiveness of large-scale implementation needs evaluation. Thorough assessment required for reliable and efficient hydrogen capture and storage.	^[19]
POWERPASTE	The composition of POWERPASTE is nontoxic and safe. Allows for transportation without special safety precautions. POWERPASTE has a storage life of 5 years. Provides a reliable and practical option for hydrogen storage. POWERPASTE can utilize various water sources. Includes tap water and saltwater. Adaptable and accessible in different environments. POWERPASTE is easily recyclable, reducing waste and promoting environmental sustainability. Production cost estimated at around €2/kg, ensuring cost-effectiveness.	The hydrogen capacity of POWERPASTE is approximately 10% by weight. Requires larger quantities of POWERPASTE compared to pure hydrogen for the same energy output.	^[20]

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/app13158711

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