Feature | Bacterial Bioleaching | Fungal Bioleaching |
---|---|---|
Application | Applied when it is required to recover a metal of interest, and it is not necessary to preserve the properties of the solid matrix | Applied when it is necessary to preserve the properties of the solid matrix, especially the crystalline properties, in case it is a mineral SMMC. |
Applied if the final color of the solid matrix is not of interest. | ||
Applied if not required to separate the fungus from the solid matrix. | ||
Sterilization and Sanitization | Not required | Required |
Stages | Performed in one step | Performed in two steps: Direct method (See Section 4.2). |
Performed in two steps: Indirect method (See Section 4.2). |
||
Operational times | Prolonged due to bacteria acting directly in the process | Direct method: Simultaneous fermentation with leaching can take 3 to 10 days, depending on the target. |
Process times depend on the SMMC/bacteria system | Indirect method: Production of the leaching solvents (fermented broth): can have a production time of 8 to 10 days, with possible constant production and storage for consumption, without this being the limiting stage. The bioleaching process takes approximately 4 to 6 h, depending on the solid matrix and the metal to be extracted. |
Microorganism | Energy Source | pH | T (°C) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans | Ferrous iron, sulfide minerals, sulfur, thiosulfate | 1.7–3.5 | 28–30 | [73] |
Leptospirillum ferrooxidans | Ferrous iron | 3.0 | 30 | [74] |
Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans | Elemental sulfur, thiosulfate | 1.0–3.5 | 28–30 | [75] |
Thiobacillus thioparus | Elemental sulfur, thiosulfate | 7.0–8.5 | 28–30 | [76] |
Sulfobacillus thermosulfidoxidans | Ferrous iron, elemental sulfur, sulfide minerals | 2.1–2.5 | 50–55 | [77] |
Sulfolobus acidocaldarius | Elemental sulfur, yeast extract | 2.0–3.0 | 70–75 | [78] |
Sulfolobus brierly | Elemental sulfur, ferrous iron, yeast extract | 2.0–3.0 | 60 | [79] |
Acidiphilium acidophilum | Elemental sulfur, thiosulfate, yeast extract, salts, sugars, amino acids | 2.0–3.0 | 28–30 | [79] |
Microorganism | SMMC | Metal | pH | T (°C) | Agitation | Pulp Density | Efficiencies | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A. ferrooxidans, Desulfotomaculum geothermicum | Crushed and screened graphitic schist with a diameter of 8 mm | Iron, zinc, nickel, copper, and cobalt | 1.7–2.0 | 40–50 | - | - | In 500 days, the recoveries were Ni 92%, Zn 82%, Co 14%, and Cu 2%. | [90] |
A. ferrooxidans | Pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and arsenopyrite | Iron, copper | 2.8–3.2 | – | - | - | In 41 days, recoveries were 47.4 mg/L at a pH of 3.2. | [91] |
A. ferrooxidans | Dried and crushed sludge at different particle sizes | Gold, copper, zinc, lead | 1.8–2.2 | 30 | 100 rpm | 6.0% (w/v) | In 14 days, the extractions were 4.71%, 9.01% Pb, 12.98% Cu, and 31.88% Zn. | [80] |
A. ferrooxidans | Quartz, chlorite, chalcopyrite, albite, pyrite | Aluminum, iron, copper | 1.8 | 30 | 150 rpm | - | In 5 weeks, metal recoveries were 47.29% Al, 54.41% Fe, and 28.08% Cu. | [92] |
A. ferrooxidans FT-22, A. ferrooxidans FT-23, A. ferrooxidans BF, and A. ferrivorans | Albite, quartz, clinochlore, muscovite, illite | Silver, copper | 10.5–11.0 | 25 | 20–30 rpm | 40% (w/v) | In 48 h, the recovery of metals was 51% Ag and 70% Cu. | [93] |
Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxidans, A. thiooxidans, Acidiphilum multivorum, and Leptospirillum Ferriphilum. | Chalcopyrite | Iron, copper | 2.0 | 30 | - | 1–6% (w/v) | In 11 days, the metal recovery was 28.57% Fe and 39.55% Cu. | [94] |
S. Thermosulfidooxidans, A. thiooxidans/A. ferrooxidans, S. thermotolerans, and A. albertensis. | Clay, sand, silt | Zinc, copper, nickel, chromium | 1.5–3.1 | 30 | 200 rpm | 10% (w/v) | In 20 days of operation, metal recovery was 49% Zn, 50% Cu, 65% Ni and 27% Cr. | [95] |
Sulfobacillus thermophidus oxidans | Printed circuit board (PCB) | Aluminum, lead, zinc, and tin | - | 45 | 120–145 rpm | 0.33% (w/v) | Recovery of 83% Zn, 89% Cu, and 81% Ni in 18 days. | [96] |
A. thiooxidans and A. ferrooxidans | Soil contaminated with metals and metalloids | Cadmium, copper, lead, zinc, zinc, chromium, iron | 5.6 | 30 | 150 rpm | 10% (w/v) | In 42 days, metal recovery was 36% Fe and 70% Zn. | [97] |
Burkholderia spp. Z-90 | Soil contaminated with metals and metalloids | Cadmium, arsenic, copper, lead, lead, zinc, chromium, iron | 3.0 | 35 | 180 rpm | 5% (w/v) | In 5 days, the maximum metal recovery achieved was 31.6% As, 37.7% Cd, 24.1% Cu, 52.2% Mn, 32.5% Pb, and 44% Zn. | [98] |
Shewanella putrefaciens | Soil contaminated with metals and metalloids | Cadmium, arsenic, copper, lead, lead, zinc, chromium, iron | 2.2 | 30 | 100 rpm | 3% (w/v) | Arsenic recovery was 57.5% in 40 days. | [99] |
Acidithiobacillus, Acetobacter, Acidophilum, Acidophilum, Arthrobacter spp., and Pseudomonas spp. | Panchakavya (soil mixture) | Cadmium, arsenic, copper, lead, lead, zinc, chromium, iron | 2.6 | 30 | 120–180 rpm | 0.2–1% (w/v) | Metal recovery in 5 days was 64% Pb and 49% Cu. | [100] |
Massilia spp., Alicyclobacillus spp., and Micromonospora spp. | Soil contaminated with metals and metalloids | Cadmium, arsenic, copper, lead, lead, zinc, chromium, iron | 3.5 | 30 | 180 rpm | 1% (w/v) | The metal extraction in 10 min was 32.09% Cd | [101] |
Myxotrophic acidophiles | Soil contaminated with metals and metalloids | Cadmium, arsenic, copper, lead, lead, zinc, chromium, iron | 2.0 | 25 | 175 rpm | 4% (w/v) | In 14 days, the two-step bioleaching achieved the extraction of 34% Cd | [102] |
Indigenous bacteria | Agricultural land | Zinc, copper, nickel | 8.0 | 28 | 180 rpm | 1% (w/v) | In 9 days, the maximum metal extraction achieved was 74.72% Cu, 35.35% Ni, and 69.92% Zn. | [103] |
A. ferrooxidans, A. thiooxidans, and L. ferriphilum | Pyrite and sulfosalts | Aluminum, manganese, iron, copper, zinc, mercury, zinc, mercury | 4.0 | 30 | 180 rpm | 5% (w/v) | In 31 days, the maximum metal recovery was 93.3% Cu, 92.13% Mn, and 96.1% Zn. | [104] |
Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxides and A. caldus | Pyrite and sulfosalts | Aluminum, manganese, iron, copper, zinc, mercury, zinc, mercury | 7.5 | 45 | 180 rpm | 5% (w/v) | Fermentation was carried out for 31 days, and the metal recovery efficiency was 45% As, 89% Cd, 94% Cu, 34% Hg, 95% Mn, and 98% Zn. | [104] |
Indigenous bacteria | Port sediments | Copper, chromium, cadmium, lead, zinc | 6.0 | 30 | 100 rpm | 1% (w/v) | During 30 days of processing, the recovery of metals was 29% Cu, 8% Ni, 5% Pb, and 39% Zn. | [105] |
Bacteria from exogenous soil | Port sediments | Copper, chromium, cadmium, lead, zinc | 8.0 | 30 | 100 rpm | 4% (w/v) | During 30 days of processing, the recovery of metals was 100% Cu, 95% Cr, 100% Ni, 100% Pb, 100% Zn, 100% Cu, 95% Cr, 100% Ni, 100% Ni, 100% Pb, 100% Pb and 100% Zn. | [105] |
A. ferrooxidans and A. thiooxidans | Anaerobic sediment from urban wastewater | Copper, chromium, cadmium, lead, zinc | 5.0 | 25 | 120 rpm | 15% (w/v) | Metal recovery during 57 days was 43% Cu and 80% Zn. | [106] |
A. ferrooxidans, A. thiooxidans, and Leptospirillum ferriphilum | Sediment from sewage outfall | Copper, chromium, cadmium, lead, zinc | 4.0 | 30 | 180 rpm | 5% (w/v) | Metal recovery was 90.9% Cu and 94.74% Zn; elements such as Cd, Hg, Mn, and Pb were below 30%. | [107] |
A. ferrooxidans | Mining tailings | Copper, iron, cadmium, antimony, zinc, nickel, chromium, nickel, chromium | 3.0 | 30 | 200 rpm | 5% (w/v) | In 20 days, the maximum efficiency achieved was 36.2% Cu, 65.95% Cr, 97.4% Ni, 2.2% Sb, and 34.8% Zn. | [108] |
A. ferrooxidans and A. thiooxidans | Mining tailings | Arsenic, zinc, copper, lead | 2.5 | 30 | 200 rpm | 5% (w/v) | Metal recovery in 25 days was 72.2% As, 47.1% Cu, 99.5% Mn, and 78.9% Zn. | [108] |
A. ferrooxidans | Mining tailings | Arsenic, zinc, copper, lead | 2.0 | 30 | 200 rpm | 20% (w/v) | The maximum metal recovery achieved in 50 days was 71.37% Fe, 0.82% Pb, and 97.38% Zn. | [109,110] |
A. thiooxidans | Tailings from an abandoned and inactive mine | Arsenic, zinc, copper, lead | 1.8 | 40 | 150 rpm | 0.5% (w/v) | Arsenic recovery in 25 days was 47%. | [108,111,112] |
A. ferrooxidans | Mine and metallurgical wastes | Lead, iron, copper, zinc | 1.5 | 40 | 160 rpm | 20% (w/v) | In 50 days of fermentation, the metal recovery achieved was 85.45% Fe, 4.12% Pb, and 97.85% Zn. | [109,110] |
A. ferrooxidans and A. thiooxidans | Mine tailings deposits | Silver, lead, mercury, zinc, zinc, arsenic, manganese, indium, gallium, germanium, cobalt | 6.0 | 30 | 200 rpm | 5%(w/v) | In 20.8 days, 42.4% As, 45% Cu, 47.7% Fe, 92% Mn, and 67.2% Zn were extracted. | [108,111] |
A. ferrooxidans and A. thiooxidans | Mine waste | Arsenic, manganese | 2.5 | 30 | 200 rpm | 5% (w/v) | In 35 days, metal recovery was 96.7% As and 100% Mn. | [75] |
Leptospirillum ferriphilum, A. caldus, Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxidan, A. sulfuroxidans, Ferroplasma acidiphilum, Acidiplasma sp., Sulfobacillus acidophilus, Acidithiobacillus spp., and Acidiphilum cryptum. | Mining waste materials | Silver, lead mercury, zinc, arsenic, manganese, indium, gallium, germanium, and cobalt. | 1.7 | 45 | 150 rpm | 5% (w/v) | Bioleaching was carried out for 50 days, and the efficiency of recovered metals was 90% Cu and 99% Zn. | [113] |
Leptospirillum ferriphilum, A. caldus, Sulfobacillus sp. and Ferroplasma sp. | Mine tailings deposits | Silver, lead, mercury, zinc, zinc, arsenic, manganese, indium, gallium, germanium, cobalt | 1.8 | 45 | 150 rpm | 5% (w/v) | In 30 days, the metal recovery was 59.5% Co, 55% Cu, and 98.2% Ni. | [114] |
Leptospirillum ferriphilum, A. caldus, Sulfobacillus sp. and Ferroplasma sp. | Mine tailings deposits | Silver, lead, mercury, zinc, zinc, arsenic, manganese, indium, gallium, germanium, cobalt | 1.2 | 45 | 150 rpm | 5% (w/v) | In 30 days, the metal recovery was 36.5% Co, 72% Cu, and 61.2% Ni. | [114] |
A. caldus, Leptospirillum ferriphilum, Methylophaga spp. and Sphingomonas spp. | Tailing material in mining areas in Germany | Silver, lead, mercury, zinc, zinc, arsenic, manganese, indium, gallium, germanium, cobalt | 1.5 | 40 | 550 rpm Aeration: 5 L/min | 15% (w/v) | Fermentation was carried out for seven days, and the metal extraction achieved was 105,000 mg/kg. | [73] |
A. caldus and Leptospirillum ferriphilum | Scorodite | Arsenic, copper, iron, sulfur | 1.2 | 45 | Aeration: 200 mL/min | 1% (w/v) | The maximum recovery achieved during 88 days was 97% As. | [115] |
Acidophilic ferrous, iron-oxidizing, and sulfur-oxidizing species | Tailing material in mining areas in Germany | Silver, lead, mercury, zinc, zinc, arsenic, manganese, indium, gallium, germanium, cobalt | 1.6 | 30 | 100 rpm | 4% (w/v) | During 22 days, the extraction efficiencies reported were 100% As, 85% Cd, 40% Cu, 85.4% Ln, 100% Mn, 5% Pb, and 100% Zn. | [116] |
Acidophilic ferrous iron-oxidizing and sulfur-oxidizing species | Tailing material in mining areas in Germany | Silver, lead, mercury, zinc, zinc, arsenic, manganese, indium, gallium, germanium, cobalt | 1.8 | 30 | 100 rpm | 4% (w/v) | During 22 days, the reported extraction efficiencies were 79.9% In and 94.6% Zn. | [116] |
Acidophilic ferrous iron-oxidizing and sulfur-oxidizing species | Tailing material in mining areas in Germany | Silver, lead, mercury, zinc, zinc, arsenic, manganese, indium gallium, germanium, cobalt | 1.8 | 30 | 100 rpm | 10% (w/v) | During 22 days, the reported extraction efficiencies were 72% As, 88% Cd, 87% In, and 81% Zn. | [116] |
A. thiooxidans Ram 8, A. ferrooxidans Ram 6F, Leptospirillum ferrooxidans, and Ferroplasma acidiphilum BRGM 4 | Tailing and mining residues (pyrite, quartz, etc.) | Iron, zinc, silica, cobalt, cobalt, nickel, aluminum, manganese, arsenic | 2.0 | 30 | 150 rpm | 10% (w/v) | The recovery achieved in the fermentative process was 91% Co, 57% Cu. | [117] |
Marinobacter sp., Acidithiobacillus spp., Leptospirillum sp., Cuniculiplasma sp., Nitrosotenius sp. and Ferroplasma sp. | Tailing and mining residues (pyrite, quartz, etc.) | Iron, zinc, silica, cobalt, cobalt, nickel, aluminum, manganese, arsenic | 1.5 | 30 | 300 rpm | 10% (w/v) | In 10 days of retention, the amount of metal recovered was 87% Co, 43% Cu, 67% Ni, and 100% Zn. | [118] |
Leptospirillum ferriphilum YSK, Ferroplasma thermophilum L1, A. caldus S1, and A. thiooxidans A01. | Metallurgical industry waste | Copper, cobalt, nickel, zinc | 1.8 | 40 | 175 rpm | 5% (w/v) | In 16 days, the maximum copper recovery was 58.7%. | [119] |
Indigenous bacterial and fungal strains | Mining waste | Silver, manganese | 2.0 | 30 | 200 rpm | 6% (w/v) | 67% Ag, 745 Mn. | [120] |
Fungi | Organic Acids |
---|---|
Yarrowia lipolytica | Citric acid |
Mucor spp. | Fumaric and gluconic acid |
Rhizopus spp. | Lactic, fumaric and gluconic acid |
Aspergillus niger | Citric, oxalic and gluconic acids |
Aspergillus spp. | Citric, malic, tartaric, ketoglutaric, itaconic and aconitic acid |
Penicillium spp. | Citric, malic, tartaric, ketoglutaric, ketoglutaric and gluconic acids |
Schizophyllum commune | Malic acid |
Paecilomyces variotii | Malic acid |
Microorganism | SMMC | Metal | pH | T (°C) | Agitation-Aeration | Pulp Density | Result | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aspergillus niger | Spent FCC catalyst (zeolites), crushed and screened | Nickel, vanadium, aluminum, aluminum, antimony, molybdenum, cobalt, tungsten | 6.0 | 30 | - | 1% (w/v) | In 60 days, the recovery was 9% Ni, 23% Fe, 30% Al, 36% V, and 64% Sb. | [138] |
Penicillium simplicissimum | Spent FCC catalyst (zeolites), crushed and screened | Nickel, vanadium, aluminum, aluminum, antimony, molybdenum, cobalt, tungsten | 4–7 | 30 | - | 3% (w/v) | In two-step bioleaching, 32% Al, 67% Co, 65% Mo, and 38% Ni were recovered in 30 days. | [139] |
Purpureocillium lilacinum y Aspergillus niger (7:3) | Printed circuit boards, crushed with d < 40mm | Aluminum, lead, zinc, and tin | 5.0 | 30 | 150 rpm | 3 to 8% (w/v) | In 27 days, 15.7 ± 0.87% Al, 20.5 ± 0.78% Pb, 49.5 ± 0.38% Zn and 8.1 ± 0.34% Sn were extracted. | [140] |
Aspergillus niger | Printed circuit boards, shredded and screened | Aluminum, lead, zinc, copper | 5.08 | 25 | 120 rpm | 3.9% (w/v) | In 21 days, the maximum recovery of metals was 98.57% Zn, 43.95% Ni, and 64.03% Cu. | [141] |
P. simplicissimum | Printed circuit boards | Aluminum, lead, zinc, copper | 6.0 | 30 | 100–400 mL/min | 1–10% (w/v) | The maximum recovery achieved for Cu and Ni was 40% in 7 days. | [142] |
Aspergillus niger | Saprolite | Iron, silica, nickel, manganese | 5.0 | 95 | 400 rpm | 10% (w/v) | The maximum recovery achieved in 24h was 65% Ni and 58% Fe. | [143] |
Aspergillus niger | Limonite | Iron, aluminum, silica, manganese | 5.0 | 95 | 400 rpm | 10% (w/v) | Maximum recovery achieved in 24h was 78% Ni and 60% Fe. | [143] |
Penicillium simplicissimum | Waste ash from power plant | Vanadium, iron, nickel | 4.5 | 30 | 130 rpm | 1% (w/v) | The maximum extraction achieved was 48.3% Fe, 19% V, and 12% Ni in 15 days. | [144] |
Aspergillus niger NCIM 548 | Chromite | Nickel, cobalt | 2.5 | 30 | 150 rpm | 2% (w/v) | In 21 days of fermentation, the metal recovery was 70.49% Ni and 66.93% Co. | [145] |
Aspergillus niger | Fly ash from municipal solid waste incinerators | Aluminum, lead, zinc, copper | 10–12 | 30 | 120 rpm | 1–8% (w/v) | After 30 days, the recovery of Cu, Pb, and Fe metals was between 60 to 70%, 55 to 70%, and 30 to 40%, respectively. | [146] |
Aspergillus niger y Aspergillus tubingensis | Electronic waste (e-waste) | Copper, lead, tin, silver, gold, platinum, platinum, aluminum, manganese, and palladium | 5.0 | 30 | 140 rpm | 1%(w/v) | The achieved metal recovery was 80% Al, 50% Co, 90% Mn, 80% Li and 67% Ni in 27 days. | [147] |
Aspergillus niger | Bauxite (d < 180 µm) | Aluminum, iron, silica | 6.5 | 30 | 130 rpm | 1% (w/v) | Metal recovery in 10 days was 82.80% Al. | [148] |
Aspergillus niger adaptado | Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) | Cobalt, lithium, nickel, manganese, copper, aluminum, graphite, and other materials | 5.4 | 30 | 120–170 rpm | 0.3–1% (w/v) | The obtained recovery efficiency from spent LIBs was 100%, 94%, 72%, 62%, 45%, and 38% for Li, Cu, Mn, Al, Ni, and Co, respectively, in 27 days. | [149] |
Penicillium chrysogenum strain F1 | Soil contaminated with metals and metalloids | Cadmium, copper, lead, zinc | - | 25 | 120 rpm | 5% (w/v) | In 15 days, the recovery of metals was 50% Cd, 35% Cu, 9% Pb, and 40% Zn. | [19] |
Phanerochaete chrysosporium | Waste of electrical and electronic equipment | Copper, lead, tin, silver, gold, platinum, platinum, aluminum, manganese, and palladium | 5.0 | 30 | 150 rpm | 1% (w/v) | In 14 days, the copper recovery achieved was 54%. | [15] |
Aspergillus fumigatus (M3Ai) |
Soil contaminated with metals and metalloids | Cadmium, copper, lead, lead, zinc, chromium | 6.5 | 30 | 130 rpm | 5% (w/v) | In 3 days, the metal recovery in two-step bioleaching was 79% Cd and 69% Cr. | [150] |
Aspergillus flavus | Soil contaminated with metals and metalloids | Cadmium, copper, lead, lead, zinc, chromium | - | 30 | 130 rpm | 5%(w/v) | In 15 days, the maximum metal recovery was 39.77% Cd, 18.16% Pb, and 58.22% Zn. | [105] |
Fibroporia vaillantii | Wood preservative: Chromated copper arsenate | Chromium, copper, arsenic | 3.1 | 30 | 150 rpm | - | In 28 days of fermentation, the maximum metal recovery efficiency was 87% Cu, 80% Cr, and 100% As. | [151] |
Geotrichum sp. G1 y Bacillus sp. B2 | Soil contaminated with metals and metalloids | Cadmium, copper, lead, lead, zinc, chromium | 2.0–10 | - | - | 2% | Chromium extraction at 28 days was 94.8%. | [152] |
Aspergillus niger (M1DGR) |
Soil contaminated with metals and metalloids | Cadmium, copper, lead, lead, zinc, chromium | 6.5 | 30 | 130 rpm | 5% (w/v) | The 3-day two-step bioleaching metal recovery was 98% Cd and 43% Cr. | [150] |
Penicillium rubens (M2Aiii) |
Soil contaminated with metals and metalloids | Cadmium, copper, lead, lead, zinc, chromium | 6.5 | 30 | 130 rpm | 5% (w/v) | The 3-day metal recovery in two-step bioleaching was 79% Cd and 69% Cr. | [150] |
Penicillium, Aspergillus, y Fusarium |
Panchakavya (soil mixture) | Cadmium, arsenic, copper, lead, lead, zinc, chromium, iron | 2.6 | 30 | 120–180 rpm | 0.2–1% (w/v) | The 5-day metal recovery was 64% Pb and 49% Cu. | [100] |
Aspergillus niger strain SY1 | Contaminated sediment | Cadmium, arsenic, copper, lead, lead, zinc, chromium, iron | 6.5 | 30 | 220 rpm | 10% (w/v) | Metal recovery in 7 days was 93.5% Cd, 62.3% Cu, 11.5% Pb, and 68% Zn. | [153] |
Aspergillus niger strain SY1 | Contaminated sediment | Cadmium, copper, lead, lead, zinc, chromium | 6.5 | 30 | 220 rpm | 2.5% (w/v) | In 15 days of fermentation, the recovery efficiency achieved was 90% Cd, 20% Pb, 60% Cu, and 60% Zn. | [153] |
Penicillium chrysogenum strain KBS3 |
Mine tailings | Cobalt, zinc, copper, nickel, manganese, lead | 2.5 | 30 | 120 rpm | 10% (w/v) | In 25 days, the maximum metal recovery achieved was 60% Co, 67% Cu, 69% Mg, 55% Ni, and 65% Zn. | [120] |
Aspergillus fumigatus | Mine tailings | Arsenic, iron, manganese, lead, zinc, zinc | 5.0 | 30 | 150 rpm | 8% (w/v) | In 40 days, the one-step bioleaching recovered 62.1% As, 58.4% Fe, 100% Mn, 56.1 Pb, and 54.43% Zn. | [154] |
Aspergillus fumigatus | Mine tailings | Arsenic, iron, manganese, lead, zinc, zinc | 5.0 | 30 | 150 rpm | 8% (w/v) | The two-step bioleaching showed that the maximum metal recovery would be 32% As, 45.20% Fe, 58.4% Mn, 88.4% Pb, and 31.3% Zn. | [154] |
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su151310222