The OP chemical composition is influenced by the growing conditions, extraction process, regional area of the olive cultivar, and weather, and it directly influences the OP microbiota. Previous research has suggested that the microbiome of OP is made up of bacteria and yeast and is quite comparable to other olive oil by-products such olive mill wastewater (OMWW). Proteobacteria were found to be the most prevalent microorganism, followed by Actinobacteria (Streptomyces), Firmicutes (Staphylococcus), and Acidobacteria, according to Vivas et al. [30]. Furthermore, members of Pseudoxanthomonas, Hydrocarboniphaga, and Stenotrophomonas (Gammaproteobacteria) were detected, with Comamonas (Betaproteobacteria) as the main microbial group. The cultivar seems to have a significant influence on the fungus population. The dominant yeasts were Pichia caribbica (syn. Meyerozyma caribbica), Pichia holstii (syn. Nakazawaea holstii), and Zygosaccharomyces fermented (syn. Lachancea fermenta), which were followed to a lesser extent, by Zygosaccharomyces florentinus (syn. Zygotorulaspora florentina), Lachancea thermotolerans (syn. Kluyveromyces thermotolerans), Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Saccharomyces rosinii (syn. Kazachstania rosinii).

A study carried out by Lanza et al. (2020) shows that OP indigenous microflora activity, via spontaneous fermentation, enhances the byproduct organoleptic profile by debittering it [45].

The direct combustion of biomass to generate electricity or heat, because it is a well-established industry, has not been the object of study of many research publications. The use of olive by-products as biofuel for heating is quite widespread in olive oil producing regions, especially in agro-industries, livestock farms, greenhouses, and domestic heating systems. The research on energy use has focused on the improvement of methane generation in anaerobic digestion processes [46].

There are alternatives regarding OP fermentation, as the anaerobic digestion of OP biomass leads to biogas (a mixture of CH₄ and CO₂) production as well as partially stabilized matter, recovering energy and increasing the environmental sustainability [47,48]. According to an analysis about the utilization of olive by-products in Andalusia (which produces 50% of the EU-28’s olive oil), 80% of the olive by-products are used to generate energy from biomass (47% for electricity and 33% for thermal energy) [49]. Landfill accounts for 0.7%, whereas composting or direct field application accounts for 14.3%. The olive sector in Andalusia is the most developed one in EU; therefore, their parameters probably represent an optimistic version of the European olive sector. The remaining EU countries may use less olive waste for energy generation (electricity) and more for composting and waste destinations.

However, the high level of phenolic compounds and phytotoxicity presents a limiting factor [50]. The primary restriction is the presence of a high number of phenolic compounds and organic acids in the residue, which blocks methanogenic microorganisms. Therefore, a pre-treatment is required to get rid of unwanted chemicals [51]. The utilization of the “cascading use” approach, which forbids energy use until valuable substances have been extracted, presents an intriguing possibility. Given the inhibitory effect that phenolic compounds can have on sugar fermentation, the separation and purification of these value-added chemicals may pave the way for further research. Elimination of these substances from the aqueous extract may also make it easier to produce ethanol from the glucose found in the extractive fraction, which would increase the production of biogas or bioethanol [52].

Olive pomace has been considered as a potential substrate for bioethanol production; however, pre-treatments, such as saccharification, are necessary since olive has a lignocellulosic complex and the sugars need to be more accessible to the microorganisms responsible for the fermentation, to optimize the process [32,53]. A study carried out in the University of Minho showed the potential that OP has as a fermented product and methods that improve the carbohydrates availability to ferment, namely using fungi, such as Aspergillus niger in order to perform the saccharification [54]. Another option is physical pre-treatment, which enhances accessible surface area and pore size while lowering cellulose polymerization and crystallinity levels. To promote biodegradability or enzymatic hydrolysis of these residues, various physical treatments can be used to lignocellulosic waste materials, such as milling and irradiation [55].

OP has been used as a main source of nutrients for enzyme production using solid-state fermentation by Aspergillus species [56,57,58]. The interest in the enzyme manufacture, mainly lipase, is due to their large applications options, such as additives in the food industry, fine chemicals, detergents, wastewater treatment, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, leather processing, and biomedical assays [59]. The global market of enzymes, in 2022, was about $12.46 billion and it is projected to surpass around 20.5 billion by 2030 [60]. Thus, the utilization of OP to its production is economically appealing.

Additionally, a common approach for the use of this by-product is its use for feed [61]. In fact, the nutritional value and low cost involved are the ideal parameters for a feed purpose. Ibrahim et al. (2021) verified the implementation of fermented olive pomace paste (FOPP) as poultry feed [62]. The increment of FOPP in the feed led to an increase on defense system response, reduce body weight gain, protein efficiency ratio, better nutrient digestibility, and lower serum cholesterol concentration comparing to the ones fed with a standard feed [62]. Furthermore, there were more phenolic compounds and flavonoids in the FOPP fed chickens’ breast meat, followed by a decrease on meat oxidative stress, improving the meat quality, and prolonging meat storage time.

Finding alternative feeds, such as those obtained from the agro-industrial sector, that can be used efficiently for animal nutrition is necessary due to the ongoing rise in feed prices and the need to improve the sustainability of animal production. These by-products (BPs) may be a valuable resource for enhancing the nutritional value of animal-derived products as they are sources of bioactive substances, particularly polyphenols. They are also effective at controlling the biohydrogenation process in the rumen, which affects the composition of milk fatty acids (FAs). The findings showed that while switching out some of the ratio’s ingredients, namely concentrates, often has no effect on milk output or its primary constituents, it can lower yields by up to 12% at the highest tested levels. However, employing nearly all BPs at various tested levels made the overall beneficial effect on milk FA profile obvious. These BPs, which ranged from 5% to 40% of the dry matter (DM) in the ration, did not reduce the production of milk, fat, or protein, suggesting benefits for both economic and environmental sustainability as well as a decrease in the competition between humans and animals for food. The general enhancement in the nutritional quality of milk fat associated with the inclusion of these BPs in dairy ruminant diets is a significant benefit for the commercial marketing of dairy products resulting from the recycling of agro-industrial byproducts [63].

According to studies, knowledge of the usage of olive cake (OC) is consistent with the evidence for FA. Increased levels of OC in the diet resulted in a noticeable alteration in the composition of goat milk. The contents of milk fat and milk total solids, as well as milk yields, increased under an OC diet, with a reduction in saturated fatty acids and an increase in monounsaturated fatty acids compared to the control [64,65]. These authors conclude that adding small amounts of olive oil by-products to dairy goat diets improves milk FA composition from the perspective of the consumer while having no detrimental effects on animal performance.

As this residue comes from a human food industry, so would be ideal to use it for this purpose. Nowadays, several studies verified that OP can be a food fortifier in bread, pasta, and granola, after a drying process. The results showed that the enrichment of bread and pasta with OP improved phenolic contents and antioxidant activity, before and after the cooking process [66,67,68]. Moreover, the addition of polyphenol-rich extracts to dairy products increased their stability and prevented rancidity [69]. Studies also confirmed OP as a potential functional ingredient with prebiotic activity using OP-added formulations subjected to simulated gastrointestinal digestion followed by in vitro fecal fermentation [21,32,70]. Since this by-product in its original form has a highly bitter taste, direct intake is not recommended; as a result, a pretreatment stage is needed to change this organoleptic profile. According to studies, the bulk of the phenolic compound that causes the bitterness could be eliminated after three weeks in a brine with a low sodium chloride content (6%) [71]. The surface area of the pomace compared to the entire olive is a crucial component to consider, because the process time is shortened when the natural protective barrier of the olive skin ruptures [72,73,74]. Furthermore, additional research suggests that the acidic circumstances operate as chemical hydrolysis factors for oleuropein, one of the principal compounds responsible for the bitterness [75,76,77]. Oleuropein is hydrolyzed in a pH range of 3.8 to 4.2 and fermentation would be indicated as treatment for this by-product since it is a natural debittering process. Moreover, the phenolic content has an industrial high value associated, so extraction processes aimed at the recovery of phenolics would also be a valuable strategy [71].

A study was conducted using OP that had previously undergone sequential fermentation with yeast and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) (namely Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Leuconostoc mesenteroides) on taralli, a characteristic Apulian product. By including 20% fermented OP made from black olives, the taralli was improved [19]. During storage for 180 days, the profiles of both the bioactive substances and the fatty acids were observed. In comparison to the control, the experiment produced significantly increased quantities of bioactive substances (hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, verbascoside, oleacin, oleocanthal, maslinic acid, and lutein). Moreover, the enriched taralli retained a high level of polyphenols and a low concentration of saturated fatty acids for up to 90 days of storage. Yet it appears that the scientific community is becoming increasingly interested in using OP for human consumption. OP has already been recommended by several authors as a new dietary or nutraceutical supplement, proving its positive effects on human health.