Despite significant advances in the study of depression in recent decades, the mechanisms of the onset and development of depression remain poorly understood. The mechanisms of the therapeutic effects of pharmacological agents used to treat depression are also obscure.
2. The Melanocortin System
The melanocortin system consists of a family of melanocortin peptides and a family of their receptors
[43]. Melanocortins are a family of peptides derived from the 26 kDa proopiomelanocortin (POMC) precursor. POMC processing results in a number of bioactive peptides, including ACTH, α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH), β-melanocyte stimulating hormone (β-MSH), γ-melanocyte stimulating hormone (γ-MSH), β-lipotropic hormone (β-LPH), and β-endorphin
[44].
All melanocortins originate from different parts of proopiomelanocortin molecule by limited proteolysis. α-MSH is the N-terminal part of the ACTH molecule, β-MSH originates from beta-lipotropin, and γ-MSH peptides originate from the N-terminal sequence of proopiomelanocortin. Modifications of N-terminal amino acids (acylation) or amidation of the C-terminal alter the stability and activity of these peptides.
The main source of proopiomelanocortin is the pituitary gland (its anterior and intermediate lobes), however, POMC mRNA is also found in other brain structures, as well as in peripheral organs and tissues, such as lymphocytes, skin, placenta, pancreas, thyroid gland, testes, intestine, kidneys, and liver
[45]. α-MSH in the rat brain is also characterized by a scattered distribution. Its highest content was found in the neurons of the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. α-MSH was not found in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum
[46].
The physiological effects of melanocortins are mediated through their interaction with melanocortin receptors (MCRs). Cloning of the MCR genes has led to tremendous progress in understanding the biological role of melanocortins. Five subtypes of MCRs have been identified (MC1R, MC2R, MC3R, MC4R, MC5R)
[47]. MCRs are classic G-protein coupled receptors with seven transmembrane domains. MCRs have 40–60% amino acid sequence homology, and they differ in their tissue distribution and affinity for various melanocortins and physiological antagonists, such as ASIP (agouti-signaling protein) and AGRP (agouti-related protein)
[47,48][47][48]. ACTH, a peptide of 39 amino acids residues, and its N-terminal fragments longer than 1–16 activate all five MCR subtypes. α-MSH activates four subtypes (MC1R, MC3R, MC4R, MC5R), however shorter α-MSH fragments are not able to activate MC1R but still can activate other subtypes of MCRs
[49]. The expression of MC3R, MC4R, and MC5R subtypes has been found in the brain
[49,50][49][50]. By binding to the corresponding receptor, melanocortins are able to activate a number of signaling cascades, such as: AC/cAMP/PKA, PLCβ/DAG/PKC, PLCβ/IP3/Ca
2+, Jak/STAT, PI3K/ERK1/2
[51].
The specific effect exerted by MCR agonists depends on the subtype of the activated receptor and its tissue localization. MC1R is responsible for skin and hair pigmentation, MC2R is required for steroidogenesis in the adrenal cortex, MC3R and MC4R are involved in the control of food intake and behavior, and MC5R plays an important role in sebogenesis
[43].
The accessory proteins of the MCRs (MRAP and MRAP2) are also important. These proteins interact with all five MCRs, are involved in the trafficking of receptors from the endoplasmic reticulum to the plasma membrane, modulate their activity upon binding to ligands, and are involved in the internalization of receptors
[52,53][52][53].
Mutations in the genes of MCRs and accessory proteins can lead to the development of a number of diseases. Mutations in the
MC1R gene are associated with an increased risk of melanoma,
MC2R mutations result in familial glucocorticoid deficiency, and mutations in the
MC4R and
MRAP2 genes are associated with severe forms of obesity
[54]. As there is both a wide variety of functions are carried out by the activation of melanocortin receptors, and there are many diseases associated with mutations in the genes of these receptors, they have become attractive targets for drug development.
In addition to endogenous melanocortins, a large number of their analogs have been synthesized
[55]. Currently, several melanocortin-based drugs have already been approved for clinical use: Acthar
® Gel—full-length ACTH1-39 (treatment of multiple sclerosis and infantile spasms), Cortrosyn
TM—an ACTH1-24 fragment (used to diagnose adrenal insufficiency), Synacthen
®Depot—a fragment of ACTH1-24 (treatment of multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid diseases, ulcerative colitis, nephrotic syndrome, and as a diagnostic test for adrenal insufficiency), Scenesse
®—Afamelanotide, an α-MSH analogue (treatment of erythropoietic protoporphyria), Vyleesi
®—Bremelanotide, a cyclic heptapeptide (treatment of hypoactive sexual desire disorder in women), and Imcivree
®—Setmelanotide, a cyclic octapeptide (treatment of monogenic or syndromic obesity)
[56].
3. The Effect of Melanocortins on Depression-like and Anxious Behavior
The question of the endogenous level of melanocortins in depression remains open due to the small number of studies on this topic. Some researchers indicate a reduced plasma level of α-MSH in MDD patients
[300][57], other authors do not detect any differences in the plasma level of α-MSH between MDD patients and healthy controls
[301][58]. There were no differences between depressed patients and healthy controls in α-MSH and ACTH levels in cerebrospinal fluid and plasma
[302][59]. There are currently no data on the effect of melanocortins on depressive and anxious behavior in humans. The only exception is a study, which showed that IV administration of an ACTH/MSH4-10 to human subjects leads to a decrease in anxiety
[303][60].
Sequence polymorphisms of MCR genes may contribute to the risk of major depressive disorder. It has been shown that the rs885479 polymorphism in the
MC1R gene
[304][61], rs111734014 polymorphism in the
MC2R gene, and rs2236700 in the
MC5R gene are associated with the risk of MDD
[305][62].
Indirectly, the possible involvement of the melanocortin system in depression is indicated by studies demonstrating a close relationship between depression and obesity
[306,307][63][64]. A change in appetite (and consequently a change in body weight) is one of the symptoms of depression. In turn, melanocortins are important regulators of feeding behavior
[308,309,310,311][65][66][67][68].
The role of melanocortins in animal models of anxiety and depression is being actively studied. Central endogenous α-MSH may be involved in the development of anxiety and depression. Most studies point to the antidepressant and anxiolytic properties of melanocortin receptor antagonists and the anxiogenic effects of agonists. Antidepressant and anxiolytic properties are exerted by central and peripheral administration of selective MC4R antagonists, such as HS014
[312][69], MCL0129
[313][70], MCL0042
[314][71], and the MC3R/MC4R antagonist SHU 9119
[315,316][72][73]. Intranasal infusion of HS014 also prevents development of depressive-like and anxiety-like behavior
[317,318][74][75]. The important role of MC4R allows for it to be considered as a target for the development of drugs for the treatment of stress-associated diseases, such as anxiety and depression
[319][76]. Centrally administered MCRs agonists exert anxiogenic effects. The level of anxiety increases after central administration of α-MSH
[320,321][77][78] and ACTH1-24
[322][79], but not of ACTH4-10 and ACTH11-24. Similar effects have been observed after α-MSH administration into the medial preoptic area
[323][80]. MC4R signaling in the dorsal raphe nucleus affects anxiety and depression-like behavior
[324][81]. However, centrally administered melanocortins may exert quite the opposite effects antagonizing the action of cytokines. Central administration of α-MSH reverses IL-1β-induced anxiety and administration of HS014 inhibit the effect of α-MSH
[325][82].
The effects of melanocortin receptor agonists on depression-like behavior are even more controversial. Some authors point to the prodepressant properties of α-MSH after central administration
[326][83], while others do not demonstrate any influence of α-MSH on the depression-like behavior
[327][84]. Peripherally administered melanocortins exert antidepressant effects. IP administration of α-MSH (but not ACTH4-10 and ACTH1-24) decrease immobility in the forced swim test
[328][85]. IP administered ACTH6-9-Pro-Gly-Pro also exerts antidepressant and anxiolytic effects
[329][86].
Several studies have shown that chronic administration of ACTH blocks the effects of antidepressants. A single administration of either imipramine or desipramine significantly decreases the duration of immobility in normal rats. The immobility-decreasing effect induced by a single administration of antidepressants is blocked by chronic administration of ACTH1-24, which like a full-sized ACTH, possesses corticotropic activity
[331,332,333][87][88][89].
Antidepressants can also affect the melanocortin system. Fluoxetine administration increases POMC expression and reduces MC4R expression in the hypothalamus
[334][90]. POMC mRNA levels in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus are increased following chronic treatment with phenelzine and idazoxan
[335][91]. However, orally administered fluoxetine decrease α-MSH levels in the PVN of the hypothalamus
[336][92].
The above data indicate the involvement of the melanocortin system in the development of depressive-like and anxious behavior. The inconsistency of these data indicates the need for further research in this area. The effects of agonists and antagonists of melanocortin receptors depend on the route of administration (central or peripheral), the ability of drugs to cross the blood-brain barrier, the specific area into which the drug is administered when it is administered centrally, and the dose and selectivity of the agonist/antagonist to MCRs.
4. The Role of Melanocortins in Motivational and Hedonic Behavior
Melanocortins are involved in the regulation of feeding behavior. Central administration of melanocortin receptor agonists decrease food intake. Melanocortins are able to regulate not only homeostatic (metabolic), but also motivational and hedonic aspects of feeding behavior, which is of particular interest from the point of view of anhedonia. Anhedonia is most often assessed by the sucrose preference test in experimental models.
MC4R deficient individuals exhibit a significantly reduced preference for high sucrose food
[337][93]. Deletion of both alleles of the MC4R decreases preference for palatable high-sucrose foods in wild-type mice
[338][94]. Global deletion of the MC3R decreases sucrose intake and preference in female but not male mice
[339][95].
The importance of the melanocortin system in the regulation of the motivational and consummatory phases of food consumption is evidenced by animal studies using melanocortin receptor agonists and antagonists. MT-II injected into the NAc decrease both appetitive (motivational) and consummatory feeding behavior in mice
[340][96]. Chronic stress-elicited anhedonia requires activation of MC4R in the NAc
[293][97]. Injection of MT-II into the VTA decreases motivation to obtain sucrose pellets on both fixed ratio and progressive ratio schedules of reinforcement
[341][98] and decreases the intake of sucrose solution
[342][99]. Intra-VTA infusion of the selective MC3R agonist γ-MSH, on the contrary, increases responding for sucrose under a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement
[343][100]. MC4R in the dorsomedial striatum appears to propel reward-seeking behavior
[344][101].
Food motivated behavior tested under a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement dose-dependently decreased by ICV-injected α-MSH. In contrast to progressive ratio responding, free intake of sucrose remains unaltered upon α-MSH infusion. The authors suggest that the motivation for palatable food is modulated by MC4R in the NAc
[345][102]. Central AGRP administration results in significantly increased motivation for sucrose solution in rats under a progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement
[346][103]. Chronic central MCR ligand infusion (SHU 9119 and MT-II) does not affect the response to non-ingestive reward stimuli (lateral hypothalamic electrical stimulation)
[347][104]. However, ICV infusion of α-MSH decreases the rewarding properties of social interactions (rewarding stimulus) in Syrian hamsters
[348][105].
The effect of melanocortins on the perception of aversive stimuli was also shown. In normal mice, systemic inflammation induced by LPS administration, results in aversion in a conditioned place aversion paradigm. In contrast, mice lacking MC4R display preference toward the aversive stimuli. Intranasal administration of MC4R antagonist HS014 prior to LPS injection to wild-type mice results in antiaversive effect. This means that MC4R signaling is required for assigning negative motivational valence to aversive stimuli
[349][106].
The mechanisms of the regulatory effects of melanocortins on the motivational and hedonic aspects of feeding behavior are currently unknown. The interaction of the melanocortin and dopaminergic systems can play an important role. Hyperactivity of POMC neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (POMC
ARH neurons) results in decreased neural activities of dopamine neurons in the VTA. Inhibition of the POMC
ARH→VTA circuit reduces depression-like behavior and anhedonia in mice exposed to chronic restraint stress
[350][107]. α-MSH infusion into the lateral hypothalamic area decreases food intake and sucrose consumption and increases dopamine levels in rats. Dopamine release occurs in both the anticipatory and consummatory phases of feeding. These data suggest that α-MSH-stimulated activation of the dopaminergic system is involved in homeostatic and hedonic satiation
[351][108].
These data indicate the involvement of central melanocortin receptors in the regulatory mechanisms of the motivational and hedonic aspects of feeding behavior, and the close relationship between the melanocortin and dopaminergic systems. Virtually all studies point to the ability of melanocortin receptor agonists, after their central administration, to suppress motivation for food rewards and reduce the consumption/preference for palatable food. However, nothing is known about the effects of melanocortins after their peripheral administration in this context.
5. Some Features of Melanocortins and Their Possible Site of Action
Melanocortins are often injected ICV or directly into those brain structures that are of interest in a particular study. The central route of administration is unacceptable for humans and preference is given to peripheral routes of administration. But the peripheral route of administration for peptides also has limitations due to their rapid degradation by peptidases. The half-life of α-MSH in plasma is about 7–18 min and depends on the acetylation status of the peptide
[352][109]. However, peptides have a number of important advantages, including high affinity, specificity for receptors, as well as low immunogenicity and toxicity. There are approaches that improve the absorption properties of peptides, increase their proteolytic stability, and reduce renal clearance. Among the strategies that are often used in the creation of drugs based on peptides are: molecule cyclization, N-terminus acetylation, replacement of L-amino acids with D-amino acids, the use of non-canonical amino acids, and conjugation to other molecules
[353,354][110][111].
The nature of the effects after the peripheral administration of melanocortins indicates their central action, but α-MSH does not cross the blood-brain barrier
[355][112]. How melanocortins exert central effects after peripheral administration remains unknown. Circumventricular organs may play an important role in this process. Melanocortins
[356][113] and their binding sites
[357,358,359][114][115][116] were found in the median eminence. Probably, different members of the melanocortin family differ in their ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. A synthetic analogue of melanocortins (Semax) penetrates into the brain both after IV
[360][117] and after intranasal administration
[361][118]. In contrast, MT-II, a synthetic analog of α-MSH, does not cross the blood-brain barrier after IV administration and is detectable only in circumventricular organs
[362][119]. It is possible that small-molecules agonists and antagonists of melanocortin receptors will be able to cross the blood-brain barrier much more easily.