Tillage is needed for different agricultural processes (e.g., seedbed preparation, weed control, crop residue management, improving soil aeration and avoiding soil compaction, optimizing soil temperature and moisture regimes). However, as a consequence, soil physical and chemical properties (structure, bulk density, pore size distribution, and fertility condition) are also altered, ultimately leading to good or poor crop performance [10]. Appropriate tillage practices, such as CT, aim to avoid soil degradation without compromising crop yields and while maintaining agroecosystem stability [11].

CT, as defined by the Conservation Tillage Information Center (CTIC, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA), excludes those tillage operations that invert the soil and bury crop residues. It consists of reducing the ploughing depth occasionally or continuously, applying shallower tillage with other implements, and/or reducing the intensity of seedbed preparation. Thus, it minimizes soil disturbance and reduces losses in soil and water, for which at least 30% of the soil surface must be covered by crop residues. Therefore, CT is a general term that includes specific operations, such as no-tillage, minimum tillage, reduced tillage, and mulch tillage practices ^[12][13][14][12,13,14]. Interest in CT systems increased globally after the 1930s following the Dust Bowl events, as they were seen as a way to halt soil erosion and promote water conservation [15]. However, extensive research has further demonstrated the multiple environmental benefits of adopting CT, such as enhancement of soil organic carbon (SOC) content, maintenance of agricultural productivity, and savings in the costs—in terms of time, fuel, and machinery—of seedbed preparation ^[13][14][13,14]. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that leaving crop residues on the soil surface also reduces evapotranspiration, improves infiltration, and suppresses weed growth ^[12][16][12,16]. According to the CTIC, there are five types of CT systems.

The NT system is a specialized type of CT consisting of a one-pass planting and fertilizer operation in which the soil and the surface residues are minimally disturbed [17]. NT systems eliminate all pre-planting mechanical seedbed preparation except for the opening of a narrow (2–3 cm wide) strip or small hole in the ground for seed placement that ensures adequate seed–soil contact [11]. Retaining crop residues and leaving them on the soil surface is pivotal for soil and water conservation. Weed control can be managed using herbicides, a brush cutter, or biological control methods, such as crop rotation, inter-cropping, or vegetation strips. However, the use of herbicides may have detrimental effects on the soil system and its functions; thus, they should be applied with caution. Indeed, the new European agro-environmental policy framework discourages the use of herbicides; thus, use of mechanical or biological control methods should be boosted. Among the potential benefits of NT compared to other tillage systems are that it is more effective in controlling soil erosion, it improves soil water storage capacity, and it results in lower energy costs per unit of production and higher grain yields, especially in low-slope areas. However, as already stated, major disadvantages of NT are the heavy use of herbicides for weed control and the risk of soil compaction and nutrient stratification ^[18][19][18,19] in intensive agricultural systems (e.g., low residue input, machine traffic).

Mulch tillage is based on the principles of causing the least disturbance to the soil and leaving the maximum percentage of crop residue on the soil surface. For this purpose, in addition to in situ crop residues, the use of live mulch derived from cover crop residues is becoming a common practice. This practice can be adopted in herbaceous and woody crop systems by either allowing spontaneous plant cover to become established or by growing cover crops in the fallow period (in the case of herbaceous crop systems) or in the inter-tree rows (in the case of woody crop systems). Regardless of the type of plant cover used, this practice consists of maintaining plant cover that can protect the soil for as long as possible without causing the problem of competition for water and nutrients with the main crop. To do so, in accordance with the crop type and climate conditions, the spontaneous or seeded plant covers are mowed before the water-limiting period starts, and their residues are left on the soil surface as mulch.

Strip tillage is a practice in which soil disturbance is limited to the crop rows while the rest of the soil is left undisturbed [20]. This tillage practice emerged as an alternative soil management practice in attempts to solve and mitigate the problems derived from conventional tillage or direct seeding methods [21]. The seedbed is divided into a seedling zone (5–10 cm wide), which is mechanically tilled to optimize the soil and micro-climate environment for germination and establishment of seedlings, and an inter-row zone, which is left undisturbed and protected by mulch or managed using chiselling to improve water infiltration and root development [22]. Today, strip tillage can benefit from the use of global positioning system (GPS) guidance equipment [23].

Ridge tillage consists of leaving the soil undisturbed before planting and then tilling about one third of the soil surface when planting with sweeps or row cleaners. Crops are planted in rows on cultivated ridges, while weeds are controlled with herbicides. This tillage practice gained popularity as a conservation agriculture practice for maize and soybean production in the USA [17].

Reduced tillage (RT) is a soil management practice that consists of reducing the total number of tillage passes per year needed before seed planting (in both annual and perennial crops) or for soil aeration and decompaction (particularly in perennial crops). RT is also called minimum tillage and shallow tillage since, in some cases, it refers to reducing the depth at which the soil is tilled and/or using a cultivator or chisel plough to avoid soil inversion. Occasional tillage refers to the practice of one-time tillage, where tillage is conducted once every 5 or 10 years—depending on the soil, climate, and crop type—in an otherwise continuous NT system. This tillage practice is generally applied to mitigate the potential negative effects that tillage cessation may cause in some cases, such as soil compaction and nutrient stratification, particularly in rainfed perennial cropping systems ^[24][25][24,25].

Permanent plant cover refers to those practices involving the growth of a permanent spontaneous or seeded plant cover within the crop system (intercropping systems) or between periods of normal crop production for soil protection and improvement. In the case of spontaneous plant covers, weeds grow in accordance with the pedoclimatic conditions of the area, and species are typically wild species. When the plant cover is seeded by employing what is known as a cover crop, species are selected for which the products can be harvested for food or feed. They may be leguminous (e.g., vetch) so that the cover crop can help to improve the N content, the crops may be used for forage or human consumption (e.g., rye, rapeseed), or mixtures of two or more species may be employed. Spontaneous plant cover can either be removed with a reduced tillage operation so that the plant residues are quickly incorporated into the soil or left on the soil surface; thus, the incorporation of the C and other nutrients will be slower. When seeded cover crops are harvested, their residues are usually left on the soil surface.

Crop diversification (CD) is a farming system that encourages the cultivation of different plant species in the same field as opposed to monoculture farming ^[26][27][90,91]. There are different options for implementing CD, such as crop rotations (at least two crops in different years), multiple cropping (different crops grown in succession during the same year), and intercropping (crops grown together on the same field). In intercropping, crops can be planted in alternate rows and harvested together (row intercropping) or in wide rows and mechanically harvested separately (strip intercropping), or they can be sown together (mixed intercropping); i.e., with no separation between rows or strips.

In addition to allowing a higher number of crops to be grown and alternated on a field, CD has several objectives [7]:

(a)

Covering and protecting the soil from climatic agents in a continuous and effective way;

(b)

Maintaining and improving soil structure through the action of the root systems of the plants;

(c)

Stimulating biological activity in the soil and eliminating periods with no crop cover;

(d)

Limiting environmental risks due to nitrate leaching, erosion and surface runoff, and loss of biodiversity.