Development Aspects for Practical Non-aqueous Redox-Flow Batteries: Comparison
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Lindsay Dong and Version 1 by Mariano Grünebaum.

Redox-flow cells can be divided into four basic types: all-liquid redox-flow batteries (ALRFBs), semi-solid redox-flow batteries (SSRFBs), hybrid redox-flow batteries (HRFBs), and single-flow batteries (SFB). These four basic types can be further classified by their cell separation techniques and membrane setups. They range from having no separation membrane to having up to three separation membranes in parallel.

  • redox-flow batteries
  • electrolyte design
  • cell design
  • redox-flow cell operating
Please wait, diff process is still running!

References

  1. Xu, F.; Li, H.; Liu, Y.; Jing, Q. Advanced redox flow fuel cell using ferric chloride as main catalyst for complete conversion from carbohydrates to electricity. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 5142.
  2. Winter, M.; Brodd, R.J. What are batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors? Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4245–4269.
  3. Liu, W.; Gong, Y.; Tricker, A.; Wu, G.; Liu, C.; Chao, Z.; Deng, Y. Fundamental Study toward Improving the Performance of a High-Moisture Biomass-Fueled Redox Flow Fuel Cell. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2020, 59, 4817–4828.
  4. Cho, K.T.; Tucker, M.C.; Weber, A.Z. A Review of Hydrogen/Halogen Flow Cells. Energy Technol. 2016, 4, 655–678.
  5. Lyu, Y.; Xie, J.; Wang, D.; Wang, J. Review of cell performance in solid oxide fuel cells. J. Mater. Sci. 2020, 55, 7184–7207.
  6. Brett, D.J.L.; Atkinson, A.; Brandon, N.P.; Skinner, S.J. Intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2008, 37, 1568–1578.
  7. Wang, Y.; Ruiz Diaz, D.F.; Chen, K.S.; Wang, Z.; Adroher, X.C. Materials, technological status, and fundamentals of PEM fuel cells—A review. Mater. Today 2020, 32, 178–203.
  8. Mitlitsky, F.; Myers, B.; Weisberg, A.H.; Molter, T.M.; Smith, W.F. Reversible (unitised) PEM fuel cell devices. Fuel Cells Bull. 1999, 2, 6–11.
  9. Hamelet, S.; Tzedakis, T.; Leriche, J.-B.; Sailler, S.; Larcher, D.; Taberna, P.-L.; Simon, P.; Tarascon, J.-M. Non-Aqueous Li-Based Redox Flow Batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2012, 159, A1360–A1367.
  10. Chakrabarti, M.H.; Dryfe, R.; Roberts, E. Evaluation of electrolytes for redox flow battery applications. Electrochim. Acta 2007, 52, 2189–2195.
  11. Shin, S.-H.; Yun, S.-H.; Moon, S.-H. A review of current developments in non-aqueous redox flow batteries: Characterization of their membranes for design perspective. RSC Adv. 2013, 3, 9095.
  12. Noh, C.; Shin, M.; Kwon, Y. A strategy for lowering cross-contamination of aqueous redox flow batteries using metal-ligand complexes as redox couple. J. Power Sources 2022, 520, 230810.
  13. Korshunov, A.; Milner, M.J.; Grünebaum, M.; Studer, A.; Winter, M.; Cekic-Laskovic, I. An oxo-verdazyl radical for a symmetrical non-aqueous redox flow battery. J. Mater. Chem. A 2020, 8, 22280–22291.
  14. Sikukuu Nambafu, G. Organic molecules as bifunctional electroactive materials for symmetric redox flow batteries: A mini review. Electrochem. Commun. 2021, 127, 107052.
  15. Duduta, M.; Ho, B.; Wood, V.C.; Limthongkul, P.; Brunini, V.E.; Carter, W.C.; Chiang, Y.-M. Semi-Solid Lithium Rechargeable Flow Battery. Adv. Energy Mater. 2011, 1, 511–516.
  16. Chen, H.; Lu, Y.-C. A High-Energy-Density Multiple Redox Semi-Solid-Liquid Flow Battery. Adv. Energy Mater. 2016, 6, 1502183.
  17. Biendicho, J.J.; Flox, C.; Sanz, L.; Morante, J.R. Static and Dynamic Studies on LiNi1/3 Co1/3 Mn1/3 O2 -Based Suspensions for Semi-Solid Flow Batteries. ChemSusChem 2016, 9, 1938–1944.
  18. Hamelet, S.; Larcher, D.; Dupont, L.; Tarascon, J.-M. Silicon-Based Non Aqueous Anolyte for Li Redox-Flow Batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2013, 160, A516–A5202013.
  19. Guillon, O. (Ed.) Advanced Ceramics for Energy Conversion and Storage; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Kidlington, UK; Oxford, UK; Cambridge, MA, USA, 2020; ISBN 978-0081027264.
  20. Yan, W.; Wang, C.; Tian, J.; Zhu, G.; Ma, L.; Wang, Y.; Chen, R.; Hu, Y.; Wang, L.; Chen, T.; et al. All-polymer particulate slurry batteries. Nat. Commun. 2019, 10, 2513.
  21. Xing, X.; Liu, Q.; Li, J.; Han, Z.; Wang, B.; Lemmon, J.P. A nonaqueous all organic semisolid flow battery. Chem. Commun. 2019, 55, 14214–14217.
  22. Soloveichik, G.L. Flow Batteries: Current Status and Trends. Chem. Rev. 2015, 115, 11533–11558.
  23. Yufit, V.; Hale, B.; Matian, M.; Mazur, P.; Brandon, N.P. Development of a Regenerative Hydrogen-Vanadium Fuel Cell for Energy Storage Applications. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2013, 160, A856–A861.
  24. Alon, M.; Blum, A.; Peled, E. Feasibility study of hydrogen/iron redox flow cell for grid-storage applications. J. Power Sources 2013, 240, 417–420.
  25. Cho, K.T.; Ridgway, P.; Weber, A.Z.; Haussener, S.; Battaglia, V.; Srinivasan, V. High Performance Hydrogen/Bromine Redox Flow Battery for Grid-Scale Energy Storage. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2012, 159, A1806–A1815.
  26. Rubio-Garcia, J.; Kucernak, A.; Zhao, D.; Li, D.; Fahy, K.; Yufit, V.; Brandon, N.; Gomez-Gonzalez, M. Hydrogen/manganese hybrid redox flow battery. J. Phys. Energy 2019, 1, 15006.
  27. Hewa Dewage, H.; Wu, B.; Tsoi, A.; Yufit, V.; Offer, G.; Brandon, N. A novel regenerative hydrogen cerium fuel cell for energy storage applications. J. Mater. Chem. A 2015, 3, 9446–9450.
  28. Rubio-Garcia, J.; Kucernak, A.; Parra-Puerto, A.; Liu, R.; Chakrabarti, B. Hydrogen/functionalized benzoquinone for a high-performance regenerative fuel cell as a potential large-scale energy storage platform. J. Mater. Chem. A 2020, 8, 3933–3941.
  29. Rubio-Garcia, J.; Cui, J.; Parra-Puerto, A.; Kucernak, A. Hydrogen/Vanadium Hybrid Redox Flow Battery with enhanced electrolyte concentration. Energy Storage Mater. 2020, 31, 1–10.
  30. Cheng, J.; Zhang, L.; Yang, Y.-S.; Wen, Y.-H.; Cao, G.-P.; Wang, X.-D. Preliminary study of single flow zinc–nickel battery. Electrochem. Commun. 2007, 9, 2639–2642.
  31. Im, Y.; Kim, J.; Park, K.S.; Cho, T.W.; Jeon, J.; Chung, K.; Eguchi, K.; Kang, M. Influence of small amount of Mg incorporated into hexagonal ZnO crystal on cell performance in membrane free Zinc–Nickel redox battery. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 2018, 64, 318–327.
  32. Cheng, Y.; Zhang, H.; Lai, Q.; Li, X.; Zheng, Q.; Xi, X.; Ding, C. Effect of temperature on the performances and in situ polarization analysis of zinc–nickel single flow batteries. J. Power Sources 2014, 249, 435–439.
  33. Gu, S.; Gong, K.; Yan, E.Z.; Yan, Y. A multiple ion-exchange membrane design for redox flow batteries. Energy Environ. Sci. 2014, 7, 2986–2998.
  34. Bamgbopa, M.O.; Almheiri, S.; Sun, H. Prospects of recently developed membraneless cell designs for redox flow batteries. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 70, 506–518.
  35. Von Doenhoff, A.E.; Braslow, A.L. The effect of distributed surface roughness on laminar flow. In Boundary Layer and Flow Control; Lachmann, G.V., Ed.; Elsevier Science: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1961; pp. 657–681. ISBN 9781483213231.
  36. Skyllas-Kazacos, M.; Rychcik, M.; Robins, R.G.; Fane, A.G.; Green, M.A. New All-Vanadium Redox Flow Cell. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1986, 133, 1057–1058.
  37. Skyllas-Kazacos, M.; Rychick, M.; Robins, R. All-Vanadium Redox Battery. U.S. Patent 4786567, 22 November 1988.
  38. Skyllas-Kazacos, M.; Grossmith, F. Efficient Vanadium Redox Flow Cell. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1987, 134, 2950–2953.
  39. Schulte, D.; Drillkens, J.; Schulte, B.; Sauer, D.U. Nafion Hybrid Membranes for Use in Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries. ECS Trans. 2010, 25, 247–255.
  40. Jiang, B.; Wu, L.; Yu, L.; Qiu, X.; Xi, J. A comparative study of Nafion series membranes for vanadium redox flow batteries. J. Membr. Sci. 2016, 510, 18–26.
  41. Maghsoudy, S.; Rahimi, M.; Dehkordi, A.M. Investigation on various types of ion-exchange membranes in vanadium redox flow batteries: Experiment and modeling. J. Energy Storage 2022, 54, 105347.
  42. Peng, S.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, C.; Ding, Y.; Guo, X.; He, G.; Yu, G. Gradient-Distributed Metal-Organic Framework-Based Porous Membranes for Nonaqueous Redox Flow Batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2018, 8, 1802533.
  43. Hendriks, K.H.; Robinson, S.G.; Braten, M.N.; Sevov, C.S.; Helms, B.A.; Sigman, M.S.; Minteer, S.D.; Sanford, M.S. High-Performance Oligomeric Catholytes for Effective Macromolecular Separation in Nonaqueous Redox Flow Batteries. ACS Cent. Sci. 2018, 4, 189–196.
  44. Chen, R. Redox flow batteries for energy storage: Recent advances in using organic active materials. Curr. Opin. Electrochem. 2020, 21, 40–45.
  45. Reichardt, C.; Welton, T. Solvents and Solvent Effects in Organic Chemistry, 4th ed.; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2011; ISBN 9783527324736.
  46. Smallwood, I. Handbook of Organic Solvent Properties; Elsevier Science: Burlington, MA, USA, 1996; ISBN 0340645784.
  47. Jonsson, M.; Houmam, A.; Jocys, G.; Wayner, D.D.M. Solvent effects on redox properties of radical ions 1. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. 1999, 2, 425–430.
  48. Catalán, J. Toward a generalized treatment of the solvent effect based on four empirical scales: Dipolarity (SdP, a new scale), polarizability (SP), acidity (SA), and basicity (SB) of the medium. J. Phys. Chem. B 2009, 113, 5951–5960.
  49. Li, Z.; Li, S.; Liu, S.; Huang, K.; Fang, D.; Wang, F.; Peng, S. Electrochemical Properties of an All-Organic Redox Flow Battery Using 2,2,6,6-Tetramethyl-1-Piperidinyloxy and N-Methylphthalimide. Electrochem. Solid State Lett. 2011, 14, A171.
  50. Wylie, L.; Blesch, T.; Freeman, R.; Hatakeyama-Sato, K.; Oyaizu, K.; Yoshizawa-Fujita, M.; Izgorodina, E.I. Reversible Reduction of the TEMPO Radical: One Step Closer to an All-Organic Redox Flow Battery. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2020, 8, 17988–17996.
  51. Duan, W.; Vemuri, R.S.; Milshtein, J.D.; Laramie, S.; Dmello, R.D.; Huang, J.; Zhang, L.; Hu, D.; Vijayakumar, M.; Wang, W.; et al. A symmetric organic-based nonaqueous redox flow battery and its state of charge diagnostics by FTIR. J. Mater. Chem. A 2016, 4, 5448–5456.
  52. Hagemann, T.; Winsberg, J.; Häupler, B.; Janoschka, T.; Gruber, J.J.; Wild, A.; Schubert, U.S. A bipolar nitronyl nitroxide small molecule for an all-organic symmetric redox-flow battery. NPG Asia Mater. 2017, 9, e340.
  53. Charlton, G.D.; Barbon, S.M.; Gilroy, J.B.; Dyker, C.A. A bipolar verdazyl radical for a symmetric all-organic redox flow-type battery. J. Energy Chem. 2019, 34, 52–56.
  54. Navalpotro, P.; Sierra, N.; Trujillo, C.; Montes, I.; Palma, J.; Marcilla, R. Exploring the Versatility of Membrane-Free Battery Concept Using Different Combinations of Immiscible Redox Electrolytes. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2018, 10, 41246–41256.
  55. Peljo, P.; Bichon, M.; Girault, H.H. Ion transfer battery: Storing energy by transferring ions across liquid-liquid interfaces. Chem. Commun. 2016, 52, 9761–9764.
  56. Huang, J.; Cheng, L.; Assary, R.S.; Wang, P.; Xue, Z.; Burrell, A.K.; Curtiss, L.A.; Zhang, L. Liquid Catholyte Molecules for Nonaqueous Redox Flow Batteries. Adv. Energy Mater. 2015, 5, 1401782.
  57. Cong, G.; Zhou, Y.; Li, Z.; Lu, Y.-C. A Highly Concentrated Catholyte Enabled by a Low-Melting-Point Ferrocene Derivative. ACS Energy Lett. 2017, 2, 869–875.
  58. Astruc, D. Why is Ferrocene so Exceptional? Eur. J. Inorg. Chem. 2017, 2017, 6–29.
  59. Buhrmester, C.; Moshurchak, L.; Wang, R.L.; Dahn, J.R. Phenothiazine Molecules. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2006, 153, A288.
  60. Attanayake, N.H.; Kowalski, J.A.; Greco, K.V.; Casselman, M.D.; Milshtein, J.D.; Chapman, S.J.; Parkin, S.R.; Brushett, F.R.; Odom, S.A. Tailoring Two-Electron-Donating Phenothiazines to Enable High-Concentration Redox Electrolytes for Use in Nonaqueous Redox Flow Batteries. Chem. Mater. 2019, 31, 4353–4363.
  61. Kaur, A.P.; Casselman, M.D.; Elliott, C.F.; Parkin, S.R.; Risko, C.; Odom, S.A. Overcharge protection of lithium-ion batteries above 4 V with a perfluorinated phenothiazine derivative. J. Mater. Chem. A 2016, 4, 5410–5414.
  62. Huang, J.; Yang, Z.; Vijayakumar, M.; Duan, W.; Hollas, A.; Pan, B.; Wang, W.; Wei, X.; Zhang, L. A Two-Electron Storage Nonaqueous Organic Redox Flow Battery. Adv. Sustain. Syst. 2018, 2, 1700131.
  63. Kowalski, J.A.; Casselman, M.D.; Kaur, A.P.; Milshtein, J.D.; Elliott, C.F.; Modekrutti, S.; Attanayake, N.H.; Zhang, N.; Parkin, S.R.; Risko, C.; et al. A stable two-electron-donating phenothiazine for application in nonaqueous redox flow batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2017, 5, 24371–24379.
  64. Attanayake, N.H.; Liang, Z.; Wang, Y.; Kaur, A.P.; Parkin, S.R.; Mobley, J.K.; Ewoldt, R.H.; Landon, J.; Odom, S.A. Dual function organic active materials for nonaqueous redox flow batteries. Mater. Adv. 2021, 2, 1390–1401.
  65. Zhang, C.; Niu, Z.; Ding, Y.; Zhang, L.; Zhou, Y.; Guo, X.; Zhang, X.; Zhao, Y.; Yu, G. Highly Concentrated Phthalimide-Based Anolytes for Organic Redox Flow Batteries with Enhanced Reversibility. Chem 2018, 4, 2814–2825.
  66. Zhang, C.; Qian, Y.; Ding, Y.; Zhang, L.; Guo, X.; Zhao, Y.; Yu, G. Biredox Eutectic Electrolytes Derived from Organic Redox-Active Molecules: High-Energy Storage Systems. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 2019, 58, 7045–7050.
  67. Biso, M.; Mastragostino, M.; Montanino, M.; Passerini, S.; Soavi, F. Electropolymerization of poly(3-methylthiophene) in pyrrolidinium-based ionic liquids for hybrid supercapacitors. Electrochim. Acta 2008, 53, 7967–7971.
  68. Brushett, F.R.; Vaughey, J.T.; Jansen, A.N. An All-Organic Non-aqueous Lithium-Ion Redox Flow Battery. Adv. Energy Mater. 2012, 2, 1390–1396.
  69. Li, M.; Case, J.; Minteer, S.D. Bipolar Redox-Active Molecules in Non-Aqueous Organic Redox Flow Batteries: Status and Challenges. ChemElectroChem 2021, 8, 1215–1232.
  70. Potash, R.A.; McKone, J.R.; Conte, S.; Abruña, H.D. On the Benefits of a Symmetric Redox Flow Battery. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2016, 163, A338–A344.
  71. Hendriks, K.H.; Sevov, C.S.; Cook, M.E.; Sanford, M.S. Multielectron Cycling of a Low-Potential Anolyte in Alkali Metal Electrolytes for Nonaqueous Redox Flow Batteries. ACS Energy Lett. 2017, 2, 2430–2435.
  72. Zhang, L.; Qian, Y.; Feng, R.; Ding, Y.; Zu, X.; Zhang, C.; Guo, X.; Wang, W.; Yu, G. Reversible redox chemistry in azobenzene-based organic molecules for high-capacity and long-life nonaqueous redox flow batteries. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 3843.
  73. Wei, X.; Xu, W.; Huang, J.; Zhang, L.; Walter, E.; Lawrence, C.; Vijayakumar, M.; Henderson, W.A.; Liu, T.; Cosimbescu, L.; et al. Radical Compatibility with Nonaqueous Electrolytes and Its Impact on an All-Organic Redox Flow Battery. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 2015, 54, 8684–8687.
  74. Langner, J.; Melke, J.; Ehrenberg, H.; Roth, C. Determination of Overpotentials in All Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries. ECS Trans. 2014, 58, 1–7.
  75. Ventosa, E.; Skoumal, M.; Vázquez, F.J.; Flox, C.; Morante, J.R. Operando studies of all-vanadium flow batteries: Easy-to-make reference electrode based on silver–silver sulfate. J. Power Sources 2014, 271, 556–560.
  76. Cecchetti, M.; Casalegno, A.; Zago, M. Local potential measurement through reference electrodes in vanadium redox flow batteries: Evaluation of overpotentials and electrolytes imbalance. J. Power Sources 2018, 400, 218–224.
  77. Huang, Q.; Li, B.; Song, C.; Jiang, Z.; Platt, A.; Fatih, K.; Bock, C.; Jang, D.; Reed, D. In Situ Reliability Investigation of All-Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries by a Stable Reference Electrode. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2020, 167, 160541.
  78. Amini, K.; Pritzker, M.D. In situ polarization study of zinc–cerium redox flow batteries. J. Power Sources 2020, 471, 228463.
  79. Ke, X.; Prahl, J.M.; Alexander, J.I.D.; Wainright, J.S.; Zawodzinski, T.A.; Savinell, R.F. Rechargeable redox flow batteries: Flow fields, stacks and design considerations. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2018, 47, 8721–8743.
  80. Duan, Z.; Qu, Z.; Ren, Q.; Zhang, J. Review of Bipolar Plate in Redox Flow Batteries: Materials, Structures, and Manufacturing. Electrochem. Energy Rev. 2021, 4, 718–756.
  81. Ressel, S.; Laube, A.; Fischer, S.; Chica, A.; Flower, T.; Struckmann, T. Performance of a vanadium redox flow battery with tubular cell design. J. Power Sources 2017, 355, 199–205.
  82. Gurieff, N.; Keogh, D.F.; Baldry, M.; Timchenko, V.; Green, D.; Koskinen, I.; Menictas, C. Mass Transport Optimization for Redox Flow Battery Design. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 2801.
  83. Percin, K.; Rommerskirchen, A.; Sengpiel, R.; Gendel, Y.; Wessling, M. 3D-printed conductive static mixers enable all-vanadium redox flow battery using slurry electrodes. J. Power Sources 2018, 379, 228–233.
  84. Arenas, L.F.; Ponce de León, C.; Walsh, F.C. Engineering aspects of the design, construction and performance of modular redox flow batteries for energy storage. J. Energy Storage 2017, 11, 119–153.
  85. Ye, R.; Henkensmeier, D.; Yoon, S.J.; Huang, Z.; Kim, D.K.; Chang, Z.; Kim, S.; Chen, R. Redox Flow Batteries for Energy Storage: A Technology Review. J. Electrochem. Energy Convers. Storage 2018, 15.
  86. Arenas, L.F.; de León, C.P.; Walsh, F.C. Mass transport and active area of porous Pt/Ti electrodes for the Zn-Ce redox flow battery determined from limiting current measurements. Electrochim. Acta 2016, 221, 154–166.
  87. Aramendia, I.; Fernandez-Gamiz, U.; Martinez-San-Vicente, A.; Zulueta, E.; Lopez-Guede, J.M. Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries: A Review Oriented to Fluid-Dynamic Optimization. Energies 2021, 14, 176.
  88. Cervantes-Alcalá, R.; Miranda-Hernández, M. Flow distribution and mass transport analysis in cell geometries for redox flow batteries through computational fluid dynamics. J. Appl. Electrochem. 2018, 48, 1243–1254.
  89. Kumar, S.; Jayanti, S. Effect of flow field on the performance of an all-vanadium redox flow battery. J. Power Sources 2016, 307, 782–787.
  90. Houser, J.; Pezeshki, A.; Clement, J.T.; Aaron, D.; Mench, M.M. Architecture for improved mass transport and system performance in redox flow batteries. J. Power Sources 2017, 351, 96–105.
  91. Agar, E.; Dennison, C.R.; Knehr, K.W.; Kumbur, E.C. Identification of performance limiting electrode using asymmetric cell configuration in vanadium redox flow batteries. J. Power Sources 2013, 225, 89–94.
  92. Aguiló-Aguayo, N.; Drozdzik, T.; Bechtold, T. The role of electrode orientation to enhance mass transport in redox flow batteries. Electrochem. Commun. 2020, 111, 106650.
  93. Tang, A.; Bao, J.; Skyllas-Kazacos, M. Studies on pressure losses and flow rate optimization in vanadium redox flow battery. J. Power Sources 2014, 248, 154–162.
  94. Zhou, X.L.; Zhao, T.S.; An, L.; Zeng, Y.K.; Wei, L. Critical transport issues for improving the performance of aqueous redox flow batteries. J. Power Sources 2017, 339, 1–12.
  95. Zhang, X.; Wu, Q.; Lv, Y.; Li, Y.; Zhou, X. Binder-free carbon nano-network wrapped carbon felt with optimized heteroatom doping for vanadium redox flow batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2019, 7, 25132–25141.
  96. Cecchetti, M.; Messaggi, M.; Donazzi, A.; Facibeni, A.; Russo, V.; Casari, C.S.; Bassi, A.L.; Casalegno, A.; Zago, M. A combined morphological and electrochemical characterization of carbon electrodes in vanadium redox flow batteries: Insights into positive and negative electrode performance. Electrochim. Acta 2020, 329, 135143.
  97. Goulet, M.-A.; Habisch, A.; Kjeang, E. In Situ Enhancement of Flow-through Porous Electrodes with Carbon Nanotubes via Flowing Deposition. Electrochim. Acta 2016, 206, 36–44.
  98. Dennison, C.R.; Agar, E.; Akuzum, B.; Kumbur, E.C. Enhancing Mass Transport in Redox Flow Batteries by Tailoring Flow Field and Electrode Design. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2016, 163, A5163–A5169.
  99. Friedrich, J.M.; Ponce-de-León, C.; Reade, G.W.; Walsh, F.C. Reticulated vitreous carbon as an electrode material. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2004, 561, 203–217.
  100. Crothers, A.R.; Darling, R.M.; Kushner, D.I.; Perry, M.L.; Weber, A.Z. Theory of Multicomponent Phenomena in Cation-Exchange Membranes: Part III. Transport in Vanadium Redox-Flow-Battery Separators. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2020, 167, 13549.
  101. Darling, R.; Gallagher, K.; Xie, W.; Su, L.; Brushett, F. Transport Property Requirements for Flow Battery Separators. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2016, 163, A5029–A5040.
  102. You, D.; Zhang, H.; Sun, C.; Ma, X. Simulation of the self-discharge process in vanadium redox flow battery. J. Power Sources 2011, 196, 1578–1585.
  103. Schwenzer, B.; Zhang, J.; Kim, S.; Li, L.; Liu, J.; Yang, Z. Membrane development for vanadium redox flow batteries. ChemSusChem 2011, 4, 1388–1406.
  104. Wang, H.; Sayed, S.Y.; Luber, E.J.; Olsen, B.C.; Shirurkar, S.M.; Venkatakrishnan, S.; Tefashe, U.M.; Farquhar, A.K.; Smotkin, E.S.; McCreery, R.L.; et al. Redox Flow Batteries: How to Determine Electrochemical Kinetic Parameters. ACS Nano 2020, 14, 2575–2584.
  105. Li, M.; Odom, S.A.; Pancoast, A.R.; Robertson, L.A.; Vaid, T.P.; Agarwal, G.; Doan, H.A.; Wang, Y.; Suduwella, T.M.; Bheemireddy, S.R.; et al. Experimental Protocols for Studying Organic Non-aqueous Redox Flow Batteries. ACS Energy Lett. 2021, 6, 3932–3943.
  106. Streeter, I.; Wildgoose, G.G.; Shao, L.; Compton, R.G. Cyclic voltammetry on electrode surfaces covered with porous layers: An analysis of electron transfer kinetics at single-walled carbon nanotube modified electrodes. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2008, 133, 462–466.
  107. Liang, Z.; Attanayake, N.H.; Greco, K.V.; Neyhouse, B.J.; Barton, J.L.; Kaur, A.P.; Eubanks, W.L.; Brushett, F.R.; Landon, J.; Odom, S.A. Comparison of Separators vs Membranes in Nonaqueous Redox Flow Battery Electrolytes Containing Small Molecule Active Materials. ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 2021, 4, 5443–5451.
  108. Machado, C.A.; Brown, G.O.; Yang, R.; Hopkins, T.E.; Pribyl, J.G.; Epps, T.H. Redox Flow Battery Membranes: Improving Battery Performance by Leveraging Structure–Property Relationships. ACS Energy Lett. 2021, 6, 158–176.
  109. Yuan, J.; Pan, Z.-Z.; Jin, Y.; Qiu, Q.; Zhang, C.; Zhao, Y.; Li, Y. Membranes in non-aqueous redox flow battery: A review. J. Power Sources 2021, 500, 229983.
  110. Chai, J.; Lashgari, A.; Wang, X.; Williams, C.K.; Jiang, J. All-PEGylated redox-active metal-free organic molecules in non-aqueous redox flow battery. J. Mater. Chem. A 2020, 8, 15715–15724.
  111. Barton, J.L.; Milshtein, J.D.; Hinricher, J.J.; Brushett, F.R. Quantifying the impact of viscosity on mass-transfer coefficients in redox flow batteries. J. Power Sources 2018, 399, 133–143.
  112. Barton, J.L.; Milshtein, J.D.; Brushett, F.R. Impact of Electrolyte Viscosity on Redox Flow Battery Performance. Meet. Abstr. 2017, MA2017-02, 560.
  113. Song, Y.; Li, X.; Yan, C.; Tang, A. Unraveling the viscosity impact on volumetric transfer in redox flow batteries. J. Power Sources 2020, 456, 228004.
More