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Please note this is a comparison between Version 1 by Shahida Anusha Siddiqui and Version 2 by Sirius Huang.
Rabbit meat could play an important role in health, the rural economy, and sustainable development. Rabbit meat has excellent nutritional features, such as high protein content, low-fat content, and a high percentage of unsaturated fatty acids, low cholesterol and sodium levels. In addition, rabbit meat production contributes to maintaining economic activities in rural marginal areas.
- rabbit meat
- nutrition
- marketing
1. Introduction
Meat and meat products can be termed functional, but they also have adverse nutrients, such as high calories, high saturated fat content, and cholesterol, which are associated with obesity, hypertension, diabetes and cardiovascular disease [1]. These nutrients can be reduced by carefully selecting the meat fraction consumed, regulating productive factors, feeding, and modifying the carcass postmortem [2][3][2,3].
Since the primary early civilizations in the Mediterranean basin, rabbit-based food dishes have been regularly produced and consumed. Rabbit is simple to grow and eco-friendly on farms and in backyards. In terms of rabbit production, there are significant variances between countries [4][5][4,5]. Asia accounted for 70.5 percent of global rabbit meat production quantity in 2020, followed by Europe (Table 1). According to estimated values retrieved from FAOSTAT, in the period 2010–2020, global rabbit meat production decreased by 24.1% [6]. However, different trends occurred among continents. A great reduction in rabbit meat production was observed in Europe (−41.2%), while increases occurred in Africa (+23.5%). China and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea are the top two producers [6]. According to data retrieved from FAOSTAT [6], rabbit meat production in China has progressively decreased from 690,000 tons in 2010 to 456,552 tons in 2020 (−33.8%), while in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, rabbit meat production recorded an increase from 133,900 to 142,769 tons (+6.6%) [6]. A range of innovative rabbit meat alternatives are available in the market, including smoked, canned, frozen, cured, sauce-picked, dried, and roasted products as well as rabbit meat sausages.
Table 1.
Rabbit meat production in quantity and heads.
| Area | Production Quantity (Tonnes) | Heads (1000) |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2010 | 2020 | 2010 | 2020 | |
| World | 1,185,447 | |||
[8]. This is because of its high protein contents, which provide 80% of the total energy of the human diet [9]. Therefore, rabbit meat is highly recommended for pregnant women, adolescents, and aged people [10]. The nutritional composition of the two major parts of the rabbit meat has been shown in Table 2.
Table 2.
Nutritional composition of different parts of rabbit meat.
| Compounds | Fore Part | Hind Part | References | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 899,726 | ||||||||||
| Protein (weight %) | 16.5–21.8 | 18.2–22.1 | 814,841 | [11][12] | [ | 608,188 | ||||
| 11 | , | 12 | ] | Africa | 78,638 | 97,122 | 70,170 | 81,387 | ||
| Moisture (weight %) | 69.6–79.1 | 73.8–79.3 | Old | [11][12] | [11,12] | Fear | Injuries | Americas | 17,550 | 15,429 |
| Fat (weight %) | 14,672 | 0.8–8.8 | 0.5–3.7 | [11] | 12,904 | |||||
| [ | 12 | ] | [11,12] | |||||||
| Nutrition | Floor pens | Small in size | Restriction of movement | Skin lesions | Asia | 828,586 | 634,025 | 570,261 | 401,248 | |
| Carbohydrate (weight %) | 0.1–0.6 | 0.1–0.6 | [11][12] | [11 | Europe | 260,673 | 153,150 | 159,738 | 112,650 |
Note: Data retrieved from FAOSTAT [6].
Rabbit meats have high protein content, low fat content, a high percentage of unsaturated fatty acids, and low cholesterol and sodium levels [7]. Rabbit meat has relatively higher energy values (899 kJ/100 g in the forelegs and 603 kJ/100 g in the loin), which is equivalent to that of many types of red meat typically consumed
| , | ||||||||
| 12 | ||||||||
| ] | ||||||||
| Gross energy (Kcal/100 g) | 86.3–161.3 | 85.8–118.9 | [11 | |||||
| Feeding | Elevated pens | Large in size | Small space | Reproductive disorders | ][12] | [11,12] | ||
| Cholesterol (mg/100 g) | ||||||||
| Biosecurity | Outdoor systems | Heat stress | 24.2–103.4 | 25.0–120.3 | [12][13][14] | [12,13,14] | ||
| LDL (mg/100 g) | ||||||||
| Reproduction management | Self-made system | Cold stress | 5.8–26.5 | 3.6–78.4 | [12][13][14] | [12,13,14] | ||
| Ambient conditions | HDL (mg/100 g) | 5.9–32.7 | 5.5–35.7 | [12][13][14] | [12,13,14] | |||
| SFA (mg/100 g) | 32.5–41.7 | 35.7–42.4 | [12][13][14] | [12,13,14] | ||||
| MUFA (mg/100 g) | 25.7–31.8 | 26.1–31.2 | [12][13][14] | [12,13,14] | ||||
| EPA (mg/100 g) | 0.1–1.1 | 0.0–0.1 | [12][13][14] | [12,13,14] | ||||
| DHA (mg/100 g) | 0.2–0.6 | 0.2–0.7 | [12][13][14] | [12,13,14] |
2. Rabbit Meat Production
2.1. Sustainability in Rabbit Meat Production
Rabbit production can be a valuable alternative in terms of economic, social, and environmental sustainability [15][16][15,16]. Rabbit farming for meat consumption is mainly practiced in rural areas and exerts economic opportunities for farmers as well as a favorable impact on population maintenance in marginal areas [1]. As a result, rabbit farming contributes to maintaining rural economic activities (e.g., meat production, leather production, feed mills, etc.), counteracting the process of abandonment of rural areas [17][18][19][17,18,19].
Rabbit breeding also has important characteristics in terms of environmental sustainability. The environmental sustainability of a meat production system strictly depends on its efficiency, which is closely related to the ability of animals to convert feed into meat [15]. In this regard, rabbits are capable to transform 20% of the protein they consume in their diet into muscle mass, a conversion that is close to those of poultry (22%) [20]. The efficiency of protein transformation into meat is higher in rabbits than in other livestock such as beef, where it varies between 8% and 12%, and in swine, where it ranges between 16% and 18%. Thus, the capability of animals to convert feed into meat is a key characteristic for predicting the economic performance and environmental sustainability of the farming system [21]. Moreover, rabbits can adapt to a variety of ecosystems and can also feed on food waste and agricultural by-products [22][23][22,23].
According to past research on various animals, feed is the most significant issue in the environmental effects of rabbit meat. Given the concerns about feed conversion during the final weeks of fattening, the scenario characterized by excessive rabbit production has a particularly significant environmental effect that is unlikely to improve with enhanced management tactics [15]. Despite their herbivorous nature, rabbits have an environmental impact that is slightly higher compared to that of chickens but similar to that of pigs. The ability to replace a portion of soybean meal to alternative protein feeds (including peas, sunflower meal, rapeseed) could reduce the environmental impact of rabbit production, allowing a grower to compensate for the higher feed modification as well as lower slaughter yield. The mortality rate could be regarded as a significant factor not only in evaluating productive results, but also in determining rabbit farm environmental efficiency [24].
Traceability is an important requirement for farms, feed mills, and slaughterhouses. The extent to which farms, feed mixers, and slaughterhouses cooperate in the supply chain depends on the country. There are examples where they are quite independent of each other. In other cases, the farm, the feed mixer, and the slaughterhouse are managed by one owner. Large corporations upgrade their voluntary traceability systems and label indicators to restore customers’ trust in meat products. Their purpose is to offer and guarantee product safety and quality by monitoring the entire food supply chain from farms to shops [25]. In this regard, rabbit breeding organizations are highly integrated. By collecting documentation and labeling, the identification of rabbit carcasses from a farm is preserved. However, individual farms and slaughterhouses might have a tough time establishing a traceability system on their own without organizational and technical help [4].
2.2. Factors Affecting Rabbit Meat Quality
The quality of the rabbit meat is relatively consistent. Although, rabbits were chosen for slow growth, they have better carcass shape and an increased muscle-to-bone proportion. Animals chosen for rapid growth rate increased fat content as well as lipolytic activities in the back leg meat, whereas oxidative parameters and free fatty acids are unaffected by genetic makeup [4]. According to the findings of Blasco et al. [4], weaning age has no effect on post-weaning weight growth, feeding economics, feed efficiency, or death rates. As a result, weaning at one month would allow the doe to be ready for mating sooner, accelerating the breeding rate. Growth rate as well as feed efficiency reduced at 2 months of slaughter age. As a result, weaning at one month of age and killing at 2 months of age appears to be the most cost-effective method of producing rabbit meat.
The primary concerns are temperature and season. An increased environmental temperature above the thermoneutrality value decreases feed consumption. Consequently, it decreases the growth of rabbit and leads to a lower weight. However, in some cases, a high ambient temperature can contribute to a better slaughter yield due to its lower percentage of skin, unfilled gut, and offals at commercial slaughter age [18]. Similarly, due to the existing thermostatic system of intake control and the increased energy needed for thermoregulation, temperature below the thermoneutrality value influences growth rate as well. Seasonal effects on growth and yield can be reduced significantly if the environmental temperature could be governed at the thermoneutrality range. When compared to rabbits grown in thermoneutral surroundings, rabbits kept at high temperatures have paler meat and larger saturated fatty acids proportions [21]. Additionally, raising the energy density of diets by adding lipids can promote growth performance at high ambient temperatures [26].
Rabbit welfare and housing system can result in final meat and carcass quality [7]. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Panel on Animal Health and Welfare provided a scientific opinion with an overview of the main risk factors associated with different housing systems, types of rabbits and their consequences on the behavior and health of the animals [27] (Table 3). The risks can be associated with factors, such as housing, genetics, nutrition, feeding, biosecurity, reproduction management, and ambient conditions. The quality of the diet has been a major production-limiting factor in many rabbit house projects. It has been noticed that farms supply a limited selection of feeds (e.g., only grass). Inadequate farmer training and/or low motivation, a lack of a feeding strategy plan, and the season are some of the reasons. In the case of limited-resource, feedstuffs for rabbits should ideally be obtained from the farm using cheap and renewable resources. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has classed rabbits based on their weight, size, and pelt type. At adulthood, little rabbits weigh roughly 1.4 to 2 kg; intermediate breeds 4 to 5.4 kg, and big breeds 6.4 to 7.3 kg [28].
Table 3.
Major factors affecting the rabbit meat and carcass quality.
| Risk Factors | Housing System | Rabbit Type | Behavior Related | Health-Related |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Housing | Conventional cages | Young | Resting | Hunger/Thirst |
| Genetics | Structurally enriched cages | |||
| Mastitis |
Note: re-elaboration on information retrieved from Saxmose Nielsen et al. [27].
Aside from water, the primary components of meat are proteins and lipids. Rabbit meat is a meat rich in protein with great biological value and high quantities of necessary amino acids. Furthermore, meat is a good source of readily available micronutrients like vitamins and minerals. In addition, rabbit meat does not comprise uric acid and contains a low purine content. The available information on the chemical components of rabbit meat is highly variable, particularly in terms of fat content, based on the part of carcass and the various productive factors, particularly feeding factors, which have a strong impact on the chemical components of rabbit meat, particularly on its lipid composition [21].
The effects of various cooking methods on the edible and nutritional characteristics of rabbit meat were studied using boiling, sous-vide cooking, steaming, microwaving, roasting, frying, and pressure-cooking processes. The physicochemical properties of cooked rabbit meat changed greatly depending on the processing procedure. Among them, sous-vide rabbit meat had lower cooking losses, and less elasticity; roasting of rabbit meat is harder and better to digest; and deep-fried rabbit meat was fairly hard, chewable, and had a bright golden color [27].
The major risks linked to the housing system include stocking density, light conditions, and materials used. Genetic selection of the rabbit has resulted in lines with a higher growth rate and muscle mass. However, breeds exhibit issues of reduced robustness and more nervous behavior, which leads to the danger of creating fear and injuries to other rabbits. Unbalanced diets and the poor quality of feed and water are other issues to be taken into account. To get a high-quality rabbit meat, the rabbit should have easy access to water and feeders. Biosecurity is another element to be considered: diseases and infections should be avoided on the farm. Reproduction management should avoid poor quality or limited amount of feed and water, poor welfare conditions, and poor health conditions of the doe. Unfavorable ambient conditions also should be avoided.
The quality of rabbit meat also depends on the housing system, which can take place in cages, pens, or outdoors. Each system may present particular problems to different types of rabbits depending on their age and size. In addition, there may be animal welfare issues that affect meat quality. These may be behavioral due to conditions that prevent rest, create fearful situations, or prevent movement due to confined space. Health-related factors that may affect rabbit meat quality are hunger, thirst, injuries, reproductive disorders, and heat/cold stress.
2.3. Rabbit Meat Supply Chain and Marketing
The rabbit supply chain has undergone profound logistical and organizational changes over the ages. Prior to the industrial era, farmers would sell rabbits to butchering or sell them immediately to the market. Many urban animal-producing and butchering systems were located in rural areas [10], such as in Spain [29]. After that, their yields skyrocketed to meet the demands of consumers as well as cities expanding. Rather than being identity, farms needed to concentrate on certain products, such as selling rabbit carcasses to small stores, butcher shops, and restaurants in towns or cities. After the Second World War, the arrival of particular breeds and industrialized feed was another game-changer for European agriculture. This was especially the case in Europe, in which rabbit consumption was already popular [30]. As a result, the size of rabbit-producing firms grew steadily larger, while their total number minimized substantially.
Different measures are commonly used to determine the commercial market value of an item. One of them, for example, is the market share, or the percentage of physical or monetary units that this commodity represents inside the respective sector. In European countries, the mean market price of rabbit meat at butcheries and poulterers ranges from 5 to 10 Euro/kg, while broiler is normally priced between 2.50 and 5.95 Euro/kg [31][32][31,32]. As a result, rabbit meat becomes naturally in decline, particularly among low-income households. Meanwhile, the most common difficulty is a paucity of rabbit meat in butcher shops [33], which means that urban inhabitants who enjoy rabbit meat could only purchase it in a few places. The primary issue in raising rabbits rationally is the higher cost of commercial food which is double for broilers and 20–30% higher than for pigs [7][34][7,34]. This is partly because feeds, such as corn, soybean meal, dried alfalfa, and other foods are used for the feed [35]. Dehydrated alfalfa, as well as soybean meal, typically make up 30 to 40% and 10 to 20% of a rabbit’s feed intake, respectively [13].
Customer perceptions, on the other hand, are used to assess the food market. Two principles, in particular, assist us in evaluating it. These are the “image” and “placement”. Consumers describe a product/brand by its image, which is based on key characteristics [36]. In other words, placement is a reflection of brand perceptions as well as their traits in the markets. Attributes are used to define or depict a product when it is broken down into its constituent variables. The most important attributes that consumers consider for evaluating rabbit meat are taste, healthiness, price, origin, and production method [7]. The brand/company image is defined as the way customers perceive the brand/company, i.e., the impression they have of it and its products. It can depend on a number of elements including product quality, communication and everything related to brand identity [37]. In the case of rabbit meat producers, animal welfare conditions and the quality of feed may represent important elements for the definition of the company image. The position of qualities and brands aids in the analysis of their relationship and can determine brand competition when a similar feature is linked with numerous brands or items. Similarly, if a feature is present but there is no brand nearby, it signals new marketing opportunities.
