You're using an outdated browser. Please upgrade to a modern browser for the best experience.
Phytochemicals from Sugarcane Bagasse and Maize Residues: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Conner Chen and Version 1 by Marta Oleszek.

Billions of tons of agro-industrial residues are produced worldwide. This is associated with the risk of pollution as well as management and economic problems. Simultaneously, non-edible portions of many crops are rich in bioactive compounds with valuable properties. For this reason, developing various methods for utilizing agro-industrial residues (such as sugarcane bagasse and maize residues) as a source of high-value by-products is very important.

  • bioactive compounds
  • antioxidants
  • agricultural residues

1. Introduction

The agricultural industry generates billions of tonnes of waste from the tillage and processing of various crops. The crops with the largest amounts of produced residues are rice, maize, soybean, sugarcane, potato, tomato, and cucumber, as well as some fruits, mainly bananas, oranges, grapes, and apples [1,2][1][2]. It has been estimated that European food processing companies generate annually approximately 100 Mt of waste and by-products, mostly during the production of drinks (26%), dairy and ice cream (21.3%), and fruits and vegetables (14.8%) [3].
In Table 1, the amounts of particular wastes generated worldwide are presented. Many of them are rich in biologically active compounds and have the potential to become important raw materials for obtaining valuable phytochemicals. Vegetable and fruit processing by-products are promising sources of valuable phytochemicals having antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and cardiovascular protection activities [4]. The applications of these agro-industrial residues and their bioactive compounds in functional food and cosmetics production were presented in many studies [5,6,7][5][6][7]. Moreover, due to the potential health risk of some synthetic antioxidants such as BHA, the identification and isolation of natural antioxidants from waste has become increasingly attractive. Important criteria to decide if a product or by-product can be of interest to recover phytochemicals are the absolute concentration and preconcentration factor, as well as the total amount of product or by-product per batch [8].
Table 1.
Amount of residues from some crops produced in the world in 2020.
Crop Global Crop Production *

[Million Ton]		 Residue

to Crop Ratio		 Amount

of Residue **

[Million Ton]		 References
][18][19]. Sugarcane bagasse consists mainly of cellulose (35–50%), hemicellulose (26–41%), lignin (11–25%), but also some amount of plant secondary metabolites (PSM), mainly anthocyanins and mineral substances [20,21,22,23,24,25][20][21][22][23][24][25].
Phenolic compounds are a very important group of natural substances identified in sugarcane waste. Nonetheless, steam explosion and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) pretreatment was applied for the production of valuable phenolic compounds from the lignin included in this residue. Chromatographic analysis revealed that sugarcane bagasse is a good feedstock for the generation of phenolic acids. The concentration of total phenolics with the Folin-Ciocalteau method was between 2.8 and 3.2 g/L. Zhao et al. [26] have identified many phenolics, mainly flavonoids and phenolic acids, in sugarcane bagasse extract (Table 2). The total polyphenol content was detected as higher than 4 mg/g of dry bagasse, with total flavonoid content of 470 mg quercetin/g of polyphenol. The most abundant phenolic acids identified in the sugarcane bagasse extract were gallic acid (4.36 mg/g extract), ferulic acid (1.87 mg/g extract) and coumaric acid (1.66 mg/g extract). Spectroscopic analysis showed that a predominant amount of p-coumaric acid is ester-linked to the cell wall components, mainly to lignin. On the other hand, about half of the ferulic acid is esterified to the cell wall hemicelluloses. The purified sugarcane bagasse hydrolysate consisted mainly of p-coumaric acid. Besides, the purified products showed the same antioxidant activity, reducing power and free radical scavenging capacity as the standard p-coumaric acid. Al Arni et al. [27] stated that the major natural products contained in the lignin fraction were p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, syringic acid, and vanillin.
Table 2.
Phytochemicals derived from sugarcane bagasse.
Name MW * [g mol−1] CxHyOz References
Sugarcane 1869.7 0.1 189.1 Jiang et al. [9]
Phenolic acids—hydroxybenzoic acids 27]
Maize 1162.4 2.0
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid 138.12 C2324.8 7HJiang et al. [9]
6O3 Zheng et al. [19]
    - antibacterial agents against the foodborne pathogens Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhimurium Zhao et al. [26] Wheat 760.9 1.18 897.9 Searle and Malins [10]
Vanillic acid 168.14 C8H8
 O4 Zheng et al. [19] gallic and tannic

acids		 - deactivate cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic enzymes Michelin et al. [32 Rice 756.7
Benzoic acid1.0 756.7 122.12 C7H6O2Jiang et al. [ Zheng et al. [19]9]
]
[
30
  extract - antioxidant and radical scavenging activity

- antimicrobial activity against 		Sta-

phylococcus aureus TISTR029 and

Escherichia coli O157:H7

- added value for the sugar industry		 Juttuporn et al. [33] Potato 359.1 0.4 143.6 Ben Taher et al. [11]
Protocatechuic acid 154.12 C7H6O4 Zheng et al. [19]
    - antihyperglycemic ability

- useful therapeutic agents to treat T2D patients		 Zheng et al. [19] Soybean 353.5 1.5 530.3 Yanli et al. [12]
Gallic acid 170.12 C7H6O5 Zhao et al. [26]
    - used for the low-cost bio-oil production Treedet and Suntivarakorn [34] Sugar beet 253.0 0.27 68.3
Syringic acid 198.17 C9H10O5Searle and Malins [10]
Zhao et al. [26] Tomato 186.8 3.5 653.8 Oleszek et al. [13]
Phenolic acids—hydroxycinnamic acids Barley 157.0 1.18 185.3 Searle and Malins [10]
p-Coumaric acid 164.04 C9H8O3 González–Bautista et al. [28 Banana 119.8 0.6 71.9 Gabhane et al. [14]
Cucumber 91.3
    - used as a fuel to power sugar mills Mohan et al. [22]

3. Maize Residues

Maize (corn Zea mays L.) bran, husk, cobs, tassel, pollen, silk, and fiber are residues of corn production. They contain substantial amounts of phytochemicals, such as phenolic compounds, carotenoid pigments and phytosterols [39] (Table 4).
Table 4.
Phytochemicals identified in corn waste.
Name MW [g mol−1] Molecular Formula References
Phenolic acids—hydroxycinnamic acids
p-Coumaric acid 164.04 C9H8O3 Guo et al. [39]
Ferulic acid 194.18 C10H10O4 Guo et al. [39]
4.5
410.9
Oleszek et al.
[
13]
58,59][41][58][59]. In the corn silk powder, the high phenolic content (94.10 ± 0.26 mg GAE/g) and flavonoid content (163.93 ± 0.83 mg QE/100 g) are responsible for its high antioxidant activity [60]. About 29 flavonoids have been isolated from corn silk. Most of them are C-glycoside compounds and have the same parent nucleus as luteolin [44]. Ren et al. [61] successfully isolated and separated compounds such as 2″-O-α-l-rhamnosyl-6-C-3″-deoxyglucosyl-3′-methoxyluteolin, ax-5′-methane-3′-methoxymaysin, ax-4″-OH-3′-methoxymaysin, 6,4′-dihydroxy-3′-methoxyflavone-7-O-glucoside, and 7,4′-dihydroxy-3′-methoxyflavone-2″-O-α-l-rhamnosyl-6-C fucoside from corn silk. Moreover, among flavonoids, Haslina and Eva [43] determined in corn silk: apigmaysin, maysin, isoorientin-2″-O-α-l-rhamnoside, 3-methoxymaysine, and ax-4-OH maysin.
This richness of biologically active compounds results in advantageous properties and applications. The most important properties and the newest studies on the application are listed in Table 5.
Table 5.
Biological activity and potential applications of phytochemicals obtained from corn wastes.
Material Extract/Compound Biological Activity/Application References
Corn bran tocopherols and polyphenolic compounds - antioxidant properties

- used as bioactive compounds in cosmetics or natural substitutes (antioxidants, preservatives, stabilizers, emulsifiers, and colorings) in foods to prevent potential adverse effects associated with the consumption of artificial ingredients		 Galanakis [62]
Corn husk extract - used in the treatment of diabetes because it has shown high:

- antidiabetic potential		 Brobbey et al. [51]
    - anti-inflammatory effects Roh et al. [63]
trans-ferulic acid 194.18 C10H10O4 Guo et al. [39]
Corn stigma extract - antifungal and antibacterial activities against 23 of the studied microorganisms

- use as a functional ingredient in the food and pharmaceutical industry		 Boeira et al. [64] trans-ferulic acid methyl ester 208.21 C11H12O4 Guo et al. [39]
cis-ferulic acid
Corn tassel extract - used as a traditional medicine in China

- antioxidant capacity

- the high ability to inhibit the proliferation of MGC80-3 gastric cancer cells		 Wang et al. [65] 194.18 C10H10O4
  tasselin AGuo et al. [39]
- inhibition of melanin production

- used as an ingredient in skin care whitener Wille and Berhow [49] cis-ferulic acid methyl ester 208.21 C11H
Corn pollen12O4 Guo et al. phenolic compounds[39]
- antiradical activity Bujang et al. [40] Flavonoids—flavonols
  extract - the source of functional and bioactive compounds for the nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industries Bujang et al. [40] Rutin 610.52 C27H30O16 Bujang et al.
 [40]
  - the source of antioxidants and is high in nutrients Žilić et al. [58] Quercetin-3-O-glucoside 463.37 C21H19O Apples 86.4 0.25 21.6 Cruz et al. [15]
]
Cinnamic acid 148.16 C9H8O2 González–Bautista et al. [28]
12 Dong et al. [41] Ferulic acid 194.18
Isorhamnetin-3-O-glucosideC10H10O 478.414 C22H22O12González–Bautista et al. [28] Dong et al. [41 Grapes
] Caffeic acid 180.16 C9H8O4 González–Bautista et al. [28]
Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside 447.37 C21H19O11 Li et al. [42] 78.0 0.3
Chlorogenic acids 354.31 C23.4 16HMuhlack et al. [16]
18O9 Zhao et al.
Maysin 576.50 C27H28O14[26] Haslina and Eva [43] Oranges 75.5 0.5 37.8 Rezzadori et al. [17]
Sinapic acid 224.21 C11H12O5 Zhao et al. [26 Olives 23.6 0.12 2.8 Searle and Malins [10]
* based on FAOSTAT, 2022, ** calculated based on the global crop production in 2020 and the residue-to-crop ratio according to cited references.

2. Sugarcane Bagasse

Large amounts of waste are generated during the processing of sugarcane. In fact, one metric ton of sugarcane generates 280 kg of bagasse. Sugarcane bagasse is one of the most abundant agro-food by-products and is a very promising raw material available at low cost for recovering bioactive substances [18,19
]
Isoorientin-2″-
O
-
α
-
l
-rhamnoside
594.50
C
27H30O15 Haslina and Eva [43]
Flavonoids—flavonols
Maysin-3′-methyl ether 590.50 C28H30O15 Tian et al. [44] Quercetin 302.24 C
ax-4″–OH–3′-Methoxymaysin15H 592.5010O7 C28H32O14Zheng et al. [19]
Tian et al. [ Flavonoids—flavones
Luteolin 286.24 C15H10O6 Zheng et al. [29]
]
    - feedstock for ethanol (bioethanol) production Krishnan et al. [35]

Zhu et al. [36]		 44]
2″-O-α-l-Rhamnosyl-6-C-fucosylluteolin 578.50 C27H30O14 Tian et al. [44] Tricin 330.29 C17H14O7 Zheng et al. [29]
Flavonoids—anthocyanins
Pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside 433.40 C21H21O10 Lao and Giusti [45] Flavonoid glycosides
Pelargonidin-3-(6″malonylglucoside) 519.23 C24H23O13 Chen et al. [46] Diosmetin 6-C-glucoside 462.40
Cyanidin-3-O-glucosideC22H22O11 Zheng et al. 449.39 C21H21O[29]
11 Barba et al. [47] Tricin 7-O-β-glucopyranoside 492.43 C23H24O12 Zheng et al. [29]
Cyanidin 3-(6″-malonylglucoside) 535.11 C24H23O14 Fernandez-Aulis et al. [48] Isoflavone
Peonidin-3-O-glucoside 463.41 C22H23O11 Barba et al. [47 Genistin 432.37 C21H20O10 Zheng et al. [19]
]
Peonidin-3-(6″malonylglucoside) 549.50 C25H25O14 Fernandez-Aulis et al. [48] Genistein 270.24 C15H10O5 Zheng et al. [19]
Other compounds Others
p-Hydroxybenzaldehyde 122.12 C7H6O2 Guo et al. [39] Catechol 110.11 C
β-Sitosterol glucoside6H6O2 576.85 C35H60O6Zheng et al. [19]
Guo et al. [39] Phenol 94.11 C6H6O Zheng et al. [19]
Indole-3-acetic acid 175.06 C10H9NO2 Wille and Berhow [49] Guaiacol 124.14 C7H8O2 Zheng et al. [19]
Vanillin 152.15 C8H8O3 Zheng et al. [19]
Isovanillin 152.15 C8H8O3 Van der Pol et al. [30]
Syringaldehyde 182.17 C9H10O4 Zheng et al. [19]
Piceol 136.15 C8H8O2 Van der Pol et al. [30]
Apocynin 166.17 C9H10O3 Van der Pol et al. [30]
Acetosyringone 196.19 C10H12O4 Van der Pol et al. [30]
Syringaldehyde 182.17 C9H10O4 Van der Pol et al. Creosol 138.16 C8H10O2 Lv et al. [31]
4-Ethylguaiacol 152.19 C9H12O2 Lv et al. [31]
Chavicol 134.17 C9H10O Lv et al. [31]
4-Vinylguaiacol 150.17 C9H10O2 Lv et al. [31]
4-Allylsyringol 194.23 C11H14O3 Lv et al. [31]
* MW—molecular weight.
Gallic, coumaric, caffeic, chlorogenic, and cinnamic acids were the main phenolic compounds extracted from raw and alkaline pretreated sugarcane bagasse and identified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) [28]. The aromatic phenolic compounds (p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, vanillin, and vanillic acid) were reported in sugarcane bagasse pith. Five phenolic compounds (tricin 4-O-guaiacylglyceryl ether-7-O-glucopyranoside, genistin, p-coumaric acid, quercetin, and genistein) in 30% hydroalcoholic fraction of sugarcane bagasse were identified using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/high-resolution time of flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HR-TOF-MS); (Table 2). The total phenolic content was 170.68 mg gallic acid/g dry extract [19].
Phenolic compounds derived from sugarcane bagasse exhibited many biological activities, which were used in various applications. The most important biological activities and the newest and most interesting applications have been summarized in Table 3.
Table 3.
Biological activities and potential applications of phytochemicals obtained from sugarcane bagasse.
Material Extract/Compound Biological Activity/Application References
Sugarcane bagasse phenolic compounds - natural antioxidant

- used in pharmacology		 Al Arni et al. [
 
 
- raw material for the production of industrial enzymes, xylose, glucose, methane
Guilherme et al. [37]
    - raw material for the production of xylitol and organic acids Chandel et al. [38]
    - used to prepare highly valued succinic acid Xi et al. [23]
    - used as a reducing agent in synthesizing biogenic platinum nanoparticles Ishak et al. [20]
Vanillin
154.05
C
8
H
8
O
3
Guo et al.
[
39
]
Corn bran is produced as a plentiful by-product during the corn dry milling process. Similar to other cereal grains, phenolics in corn bran exist in free insoluble bound and soluble-conjugated forms. Corn bran is a rich source of ferulic acid compared to other cereals, fruits and vegetables. Guo et al. [39] isolated four forms of ferulic acid and its derivates from corn bran. On the other hand, it has been reported that the hexane-derived extract from corn bran contains high levels of ferulate-phytosterol esters, similar in composition and function to oryzanol.
Another corn waste is a husk. It is the outer leafy covering of an ear of Zea mays L. The main constituents of the maize husk extracts determined in various phytochemical studies are phenolic compounds, e.g., flavonoids [41,50][41][50]. Saponins, glycosides, and alkaloids are present mainly in the aqueous and methanolic extracts, while phenols and tannins are numerous in methanolic ones [51]. Moreover, corn husk has high contents of anthocyanins [48,52][48][52]. Simla et al. [53] reported that anthocyanins concentration in corn husks ranges from 0.003 to 4.9 mg/g. The major anthocyanins of corn husk were identified as malonylation products of cyanidin, pelargonidin, and peonidin derivatives [54].
Important by-products of the corn industry are cobs. For every 100 kg of corn grain, approximately 18 kg of corn cobs are produced. Corn cob is one of the food waste-material having a phytochemical component that has a healthy benefit [55]. They contain cyanidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin-3-(6″malonylglucoside) as main anthocyanins, as well as pelargonidin-3-glucoside, peonidin-3-glucoside and their malonyl counterparts [48].
Corn tassel is a by-product from hybrid corn seed production and an excellent source of phytochemicals (the flavonol glycosides of quercetin, isorhamnetin and kaempferol) with beneficial properties [56]. In Thailand, purple waxy corn is considered a special corn type because it is rich in phenolics, anthocyanins, and carotenoids in the tassel [57]. Besides, corn tassels could be considered a great source of valuable products such as volatile oils.
Corn pollen is another corn waste. Significant amounts of phytochemicals, including carotenoids, steroids, terpenes and flavonoids, are present in maize pollen [52]. Bujang et al. (2021) showed that maize pollen contains a high total phenolic content and total flavonoid content of 783.02 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g and 1706.83 mg quercetin equivalent (QE)/100 g, respectively. The flavonoid pattern of maize pollen is characterized by an accumulation of the predominant flavonols, quercetin and traces of isorhamnetin diglycosides and rutin. According to Žilić et al. [58], the quercetin values in maize pollen were 324.16 μg/g and 81.61 to 466.82 μg/g, respectively.
Corn silk, another by-product from corn processing, contains a wide range of bioactive compounds in the form of volatile oils, steroids, saponins, anthocyanins [59], and other natural antioxidants, such as flavonoids [52] and phenolic compounds [41,

References

  1. Santana-Méridas, O.; González-Coloma, A.; Sánchez-Vioque, R. Agricultural residues as a source of bioactive natural products. Phytochem. Rev. 2012, 11, 447–466.
  2. FAOSTAT (Statistics Division of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). Available online: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL (accessed on 28 June 2022).
  3. Marić, M.; Grassino, A.N.; Zhu, Z.; Barba, F.J.; Brnčić, M.; Brnčić, S.R. An overview of the traditional and innovative approaches for pectin extraction from plant food wastes and by-products: Ultrasound-, microwaves-, and enzyme-assisted extraction. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2018, 76, 28–37.
  4. Kasapidou, E.; Sossidou, E.; Mitlianga, P. Fruit and vegetable co-products as functional feed ingredients in farm animal nutrition for improved product quality. Agriculture 2018, 5, 1020–1034.
  5. Casas-Godoy, L.; Campos-Valdez, A.R.; Alcázar-Valle, M.; Barrera-Martínez, I. Comparison of Extraction Techniques for the Recovery of Sugars, Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Compounds from Agro-Industrial Wastes. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5956.
  6. Ngwasiri, P.N.; Ambindei, W.A.; Adanmengwi, V.A.; Ngwi, P.; Mah, A.T.; Ngangmou, N.T.; Fonmboh, D.J.; Ngwabie, N.M.; Ngassoum, M.B.; Aba, E.R. Review Paper on Agro-food Waste and Food by-Product Valorization into Value Added Products for Application in the Food Industry: Opportunities and Challenges for Cameroon Bioeconomy. Asian J. Biotechnol. Bioresour. Technol. 2022, 8, 32–61.
  7. Rodrigues, F.; Nunes, M.A.; Alves, R.C.; Oliveira, M.B.P. Applications of recovered bioactive compounds in cosmetics and other products. In Handbook of Coffee Processing By-Products; Academic Press: London, UK, 2017; pp. 195–220.
  8. Pestana-Bauer, V.R.; Zambiazi, R.C.; Mendonça, C.R.; Beneito-Cambra, M.; Ramis-Ramos, G. γ-Oryzanol and tocopherol contents in residues of rice bran oil refining. Food Chem. 2012, 134, 1479–1483.
  9. Jiang, D.; Zhuang, D.; Fu, J.; Huang, Y.; Wen, K. Bioenergy potential from crop residues in China: Availability and distribution. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2012, 16, 1377–1382.
  10. Searle, S.; Malins, C. Availability of Cellulosic Residues and Wastes in the EU 2013; The International Council on Clean Transportation: Washington, DC, USA, 2013; p. 11.
  11. Ben Taher, I.; Fickers, P.; Chniti, S.; Hassouna, M. Optimization of enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation conditions for improved bioethanol production from potato peel residues. Biotechnol. Prog. 2017, 33, 397–406.
  12. Yanli, Y.; Peidong, Z.; Wenlong, Z.; Yongsheng, T.; Yonghong, Z.; Lisheng, W. Quantitative appraisal and potential analysis for primary biomass resources for energy utilization in China. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2010, 14, 3050–3058.
  13. Oleszek, M.; Tys, J.; Wiącek, D.; Król, A.; Kuna, J. The possibility of meeting greenhouse energy and CO2 demands through utilisation of cucumber and tomato residues. BioEnergy Res. 2016, 9, 624–632.
  14. Gabhane, J.; William, S.P.; Gadhe, A.; Rath, R.; Vaidya, A.N.; Wate, S. Pretreatment of banana agricultural waste for bio-ethanol production: Individual and interactive effects of acid and alkali pretreatments with autoclaving, microwave heating and ultrasonication. Waste Manag. 2014, 34, 498–503.
  15. Cruz, M.G.; Bastos, R.; Pinto, M.; Ferreira, J.M.; Santos, J.F.; Wessel, D.F.; Coelho, E.; Coimbra, M.A. Waste mitigation: From an effluent of apple juice concentrate industry to a valuable ingredient for food and feed applications. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 193, 652–660.
  16. Muhlack, R.A.; Potumarthi, R.; Jeffery, D.W. Sustainable wineries through waste valorisation: A review of grape marc utilisation for value-added products. Waste Manag. 2018, 72, 99–118.
  17. Rezzadori, K.; Benedetti, S.; Amante, E.R. Proposals for the residues recovery: Orange waste as raw material for new products. Food Bioprod. Process. 2012, 90, 606–614.
  18. Kusbiantoro, A.; Embong, R.; Aziz, A.A. Strength and microstructural properties of mortar containing soluble silica from sugarcane bagasse ash. Key Eng. Mater. 2018, 765, 269–274.
  19. Zheng, R.; Su, S.; Zhou, H.; Yan, H.; Ye, J.; Zhao, Z.; You, L.; Fu, X. Antioxidant/antihyperglycemic activity of phenolics from sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) bagasse and identification by UHPLC-HR-TOFMS. Ind. Crops Prod. 2017, 101, 104–114.
  20. Ishak NA, I.M.; Kamarudin, S.K.; Timmiati, S.N.; Sauid, S.M.; Karim, N.A.; Basri, S. Green synthesis of platinum nanoparticles as a robust electrocatalyst for methanol oxidation reaction: Metabolite profiling and antioxidant evaluation. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 382, 135111.
  21. Rocha, G.J.; Nascimento, V.M.; Goncalves, A.R.; Silva, V.F.; Martin, C. Influence of mixed sugarcane bagasse samples evaluated by elemental and physical–chemical composition. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 64, 52–58.
  22. Mohan, P.R.; Ramesh, B.; Redyy, O.V. Production and optimization of ethanol from pretreated sugarcane bagasse using Sacchromyces bayanus in simultaneous saccharification and fermentation. Microbiol. J. 2012, 2, 52–63.
  23. Xi, Y.L.; Dai, W.Y.; Xu, R.; Zhang, J.H.; Chen, K.Q.; Jiang, M.; Wei, P.; Ouyang, P.K. Ultrasonic pretreatment and acid hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse for succinic acid production using Actinobacillus succinogenes. Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng. 2013, 36, 1779–1785.
  24. Zhao, Z.; Yan, H.; Zheng, R.; Khan, M.S.; Fu, X.; Tao, Z.; Zhang, Z. Anthocyanins characterization and antioxidant activities of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) rind extracts. Ind. Crops Prod. 2018, 113, 38–45.
  25. Nieder-Heitmann, M.; Haigh, K.F.; Görgens, J.F. Process design and economic analysis of a biorefinery co-producing itaconic acid and electricity from sugarcane bagasse and trash lignocelluloses. Bioresour. Technol. 2018, 262, 159–168.
  26. Zhao, Y.; Chen, M.; Zhao, Z.; Yu, S. The antibiotic activity and mechanisms of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) bagasse extract against food-borne pathogens. Food Chem. 2015, 185, 112–118.
  27. Al Arni, S.; Drake, A.F.; Del Borghi, M.; Converti, A. Study of aromatic compounds derived from sugarcane bagasse. Part I: Effect of pH. Chem. Eng. Technol. 2010, 33, 895–901.
  28. González-Bautista, E.; Santana-Morales, J.C.; Ríos-Fránquez, F.J.; Poggi-Varaldo, H.M.; Ramos-Valdivia, A.C.; Cristiani-Urbina, E.; Ponce-Noyola, T. Phenolic compounds inhibit cellulase and xylanase activities of Cellulomonas flavigena PR-22 during saccharification of sugarcane bagasse. Fuel 2017, 196, 32–35.
  29. Zheng, R.; Su, S.; Li, J.; Zhao, Z.; Wei, J.; Fu, X.; Liu, R.H. Recovery of phenolics from the ethanolic extract of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) baggase and evaluation of the antioxidant and antiproliferative activities. Ind. Crops Prod. 2017, 107, 360–369.
  30. Van der Pol, E.; Bakker, R.; Van Zeeland, A.; Garcia, D.S.; Punt, A.; Eggink, G. Analysis of by-product formation and sugar monomerization in sugarcane bagasse pretreated at pilot plant scale: Differences between autohydrolysis, alkaline and acid pretreatment. Bioresour. Technol. 2015, 181, 114–123.
  31. Lv, G.; Wu, S.; Lou, R.; Yang, Q. Analytical pyrolysis characteristics of enzymatic/mild acidolysis lignin from sugarcane bagasse. Cellulose Chemistry and Technology 2010, 44, 335–342.
  32. Michelin, M.; Ximenes, E.; Polizeli, M.; Ladisch, M.R. Effect of phenolic compounds from pretreated sugarcane bagasse on cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic activities. Bioresour. Technol. 2016, 199, 275–278.
  33. Juttuporn, W.; Thiengkaew, P.; Rodklongtan, A.; Rodprapakorn, M.; Chitprasert, P. Ultrasound-assisted extraction of antioxidant and antibacterial phenolic compounds from steam-exploded sugarcane bagasse. Sugar Technol. 2018, 20, 599–608.
  34. Treedet, W.; Suntivarakorn, R. Design and operation of a low cost bio-oil fast pyrolysis from sugarcane bagasse on circulating fluidized bed reactor in a pilot plant. Fuel Process. Technol. 2018, 179, 17–31.
  35. Krishnan, C.; Sousa, L.C.; Jin, M.; Chang, L.; Dale, B.E.; Balan, V. Alkalibased AFEX pretreatment for the conversion of sugarcane bagasse and cane leaf residues to ethanol. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2010, 107, 441–450.
  36. Zhu, Z.S.; Zhu, M.J.; Xu, W.X.; Liang, L. Production of bioethanol from sugarcane bagasse using NH4OH-H2O2 pretreatment and simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation. Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng. 2012, 17, 316–325.
  37. Guilherme, A.A.; Dantas, P.V.; Santos, E.S.; Fernandes, F.A.; Macedo, G.R. Evaluation of composition, characterization and enzymatic hydrolysis of pretreated sugarcane bagasse. Braz. J. Chem. Eng. 2015, 32, 23–33.
  38. Chandel, A.K.; da Silva, S.S.; Carvalho, W.; Singh, O.V. Sugarcane bagasse and leaves: Foreseeable biomass of biofuel and bio-products. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2012, 87, 11–20.
  39. Guo, J.; Zhang, J.; Wang, W.; Liu, T.; Xin, Z. Isolation and identification of bound compounds from corn bran and their antioxidant and angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory activities. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2015, 241, 37–47.
  40. Bujang, J.S.; Zakaria, M.H.; Ramaiya, S.D. Chemical constituents and phytochemical properties of floral maize pollen. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0247327.
  41. Dong, J.; Cai, L.; Zhu, X.; Huang, X.; Yin, T.; Fang, H.; Ding, Z. Antioxidant activities and phenolic compounds of cornhusk, corncob and stigma maydis. J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 2014, 25, 1956–1964.
  42. Li, Q.; Somavat, P.; Singh, V.; Chatham, L.; Gonzalez de Mejia, E. A comparative study of anthocyanin distribution in purple and blue corn coproducts from three conventional fractionation processes. Food Chem. 2017, 231, 332–339.
  43. Haslina, H.; Eva, M. Extract corn silk with variation of solvents on yield, total phenolics, total flavonoids and antioxidant activity. Indones. Food Nutr. Prog. 2017, 14, 21–28.
  44. Tian, S.; Sun, Y.; Chen, Z. Extraction of flavonoids from corn silk and biological activities in vitro. J. Food Qual. 2021, 2021, 1–9.
  45. Lao, F.; Giusti, M.M. Extraction of purple corn (Zea mays L.) cob pigments and phenolic compounds using food-friendly solvents. J. Cereal Sci. 2018, 80, 87–93.
  46. Chen, L.; Yang, M.; Mou, H.; Kong, Q. Ultrasound-assisted extraction and characterization of anthocyanins from purple corn bran. J. Food Preserv. 2017, 42, e13377.
  47. Barba, F.J.; Rajha, H.N.; Debs, E.; Abi-Khattar, A.M.; Khabbaz, S.; Dar, B.N.; Simirgiotis, M.J.; Castagnini, J.M.; Maroun, R.G.; Louka, N. Optimization of Polyphenols’ Recovery from Purple Corn Cobs Assisted by Infrared Technology and Use of Extracted Anthocyanins as a Natural Colorant in Pickled Turnip. Molecules 2022, 27, 5222.
  48. Fernandez-Aulis, F.; Hernandez-Vazquez, L.; Aguilar-Osorio, G.; Arrieta-Baez, D.; Navarro-Ocana, A. Extraction and identification of anthocyanins in corn cob and corn husk from Cacahuacintle maize. J. Food Sci. 2019, 84, 954–962.
  49. Wille, J.J.; Berhow, M.A. Bioactives derived from ripe corn tassels: A possible new natural skin whitener, 4-hydroxy-1-oxindole-3-acetic acid. Curr. Bioact. Compd. 2011, 7, 126–134.
  50. Khamphasan, P.; Lomthaisong, K.; Harakotr, B.; Ketthaisong, D.; Scott, M.P.; Lertrat, K.; Suriharn, B. Genotypic variation in anthocyanins, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant activity in cob and husk of purple field corn. Agronomy 2018, 8, 271.
  51. Brobbey, A.A.; Somuah-Asante, S.; Asare-Nkansah, S.; Boateng, F.O.; Ayensu, I. Preliminary phytochemical screening and scientific validation of the antidiabetic effect of the dried husk of Zea mays L. (Corn, Poaceae). Int. J. Phytopharm. 2017, 7, 1–5.
  52. Thapphasaraphong, S.; Rimdusit, T.; Priprem, A.; Puthongking, P. Crops of waxy purple corn: A valuable source of antioxidative phytochemicals. Int. J. Adv. Agric. Environ. Eng. 2016, 3, 73–77.
  53. Simla, S.; Boontang, S.; Harakotr, B. Anthocyanin content, total phenolic content, and antiradical capacity in different ear components of purple waxy corn at two maturation stages. Aust. J. Crop Sci. 2016, 10, 675–682.
  54. Deineka, V.I.; Sidorov, A.N.; Deineka, L.A. Determination of purple corn husk anthocyanins. J. Anal. Chem. 2016, 71, 1145–1150.
  55. Suryanto, E.; Momuat, L.I.; Rotinsulu, H.; Mewengkang, D.S. Anti-photooxidant and photoprotective activities of ethanol extract and solvent fractions from corn cob (Zea mays). Int. J. ChemTech Res. 2018, 11, 25–37.
  56. Duangpapeng, P.; Lertrat, K.; Lomthaisong, K.; Scott, M.P.; Suriharn, B. Variability in anthocyanins, phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity in the tassels of collected waxy corn germplasm. Agronomy 2019, 9, 158.
  57. Duangpapeng, P.; Ketthaisong, D.; Lomthaisong, K.; Lertrat, K.; Scott, M.P.; Suriharn, B. Corn tassel: A new source of phytochemicals and antioxidant potential for value-added product development in the agro-industry. Agronomy 2018, 8, 242.
  58. Žilić, S.; Vančetović, J.; Janković, M.; Maksimović, V. Chemical composition, bioactive compounds, antioxidant capacity and stability of floral maize (Zea mays L.) pollen. J. Funct. Foods 2014, 10, 65–74.
  59. Sarepoua, E.; Tangwongchai, R.; Suriharn, B.; Lertrat, K. Influence of variety and harvest maturity on phytochemical content in corn silk. Food Chem. 2015, 169, 424–429.
  60. Singh, J.; Rasane, P.; Nanda, V.; Kaur, S. Bioactive compounds of corn silk and their role in management of glycaemic response. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2022, 1–16.
  61. Ren, S.C.; Qiao, Q.Q.; Ding, X.L. Antioxidative activity of five flavones glycosides from corn silk (Stigma maydis). Czech J. Food Sci. 2013, 31, 148–155.
  62. Galanakis, C.M. Functionality of food components and emerging technologies. Foods 2021, 10, 128.
  63. Roh, K.B.; Kim, H.; Shin, S.; Kim, Y.S.; Lee, J.A.; Kim, M.O.; Jung, E.; Lee, J.; Park, D. Anti-inflammatory effects of Zea mays L. husk extracts. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2016, 16, 298–306.
  64. Boeira, C.P.; Flores, D.C.B.; Lucas, B.N.; Santos, D.; Flores, E.M.M.; Reis, F.L.; Morandini, M.L.B.; Morel, A.F.; Rosa, C.S.D. Extraction of antioxidant and antimicrobial phytochemicals from corn stigma: A promising alternative to valorization of agricultural residues. Ciência Rural. 2022, 52, e20210535.
  65. Wang, L.; Yu, Y.; Fang, M.; Zhan, C.; Pan, H.; Wu, Y.; Gong, Z. Antioxidant and antigenotoxic activity of bioactive extracts from corn tassel. J. Huazhong Univ. Sci. Technol.-Med. Sci. 2014, 34, 131–136.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Academic Video Service
Feedback