Transformation of Rice Crop Technology in Indonesia: Comparison
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Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Catherine Yang and Version 1 by Fadhlullah Ramadhani.

Rice is the Indonesian staple food with increasing demand in line with the growth of Indonesia’s population. The contribution of the agricultural sector to value addition and employment creation has generally changed with the development of agricultural innovation [13]. For example, China has made remarkable progress in feeding 22% of the world’s population. Consequently, the agricultural technology transformation process must be phased in to ensure that the rural economic transformation is on track for sustainable food security. Therefore, government and private institutions associated with credit, inputs, and prices directly influence adoption, use, and yield levels [2]. Support for research and extension will be able to guarantees efficient transformation of the rice yield gap. The adoption of these improved technologies by farmers depends on the capacity of national agricultural research centres and extension services, which require additional government resources and training.

  • crop technology
  • rice
  • cropping index
  • integrated crop management

1. Improvement of Rice Varieties in Indonesia 1945–2020

Rice crossbreeding in Indonesia began in the 1920s using a genetic pool constructed by the introduction of plants. Until the 1970s, the development program for high-yielding lowland rice varieties was more focused on improving local varieties, mainly to shorten the plant lifespan for three harvests per year [27][1]. The first rice variety introduced in 1943 was the Bengawan variety [28][2], which was an improvement over the rice varieties of China, Latisail, India, and Benong, Indonesia [28][2]. The Bengawan variety can be harvested 140–155 days after sowing (DAS) at 145–165 cm in height, fertilizer-responsive, and good taste, with a yield of approximately 3.50–4.0 t ha−1 [29][3]. Examples of other varieties after Bengawan include Bengawan Sigadis (1943), Jelita (1955), Dara (1960), Sinta (1963), Bathara (1965), and Dewi Ratih (1969) [27,29,30,31][1][3][4][5].
In 1967–1968, two introduced varieties were released, PB8 in 1967 and PB5 in 1968, in addition to the genetic source to improve the traits of the existing varieties with a potential yield of 4.50–5.50 t/ha. Crosses between PB5 and Sinta produced Pelita I-1 and Pelita I-2, whereas crosses between Pelita I-1 and Pelita I-2 produced new strains of Cisadane and Sintanur [28][2].
In the 1970s, high-yielding varieties played a dominant role in increasing rice production. The New Superior Varieties (NSV) contributed 56% to the increased productivity of domestic rice production [32][6], and the interaction between irrigation water, NSV, and fertilization contributed 75% to the increase in rice production rate [33][7]. In 1970–1984, the government introduced high-yielding rice varieties, such as PB5 and PB8 [34][8] with yields of 4.5 to 5.5 tonnes of harvested dry gain (HDG)/ha. The moisture content of HDG was 18–22%.
The variety IR64 was introduced and marketed as a superior Indonesian variety in 1986. This variety is highly appreciated by farmers and consumers primarily for its good taste, early maturity, and relatively high yield. The IR64 varieties are medium-aged (100–125 DAS), low to medium height (95–115 cm), upright shape, upright leaf position, high number of productive tillers (15–16 tillers/clump), medium panicle length, fertilizer-responsive, high-yielding (5–6 t ha−1), resistant to major pests and diseases, good milled quality, and good taste [35][9].
In 1989, the IRRI developed and assembled rice with a new architecture, later known as the New Plant Type (NPT) [36][10]. Local Indonesian rice varieties of the subspecies Javanica (tropical japonica), such as Genjah Wangkal, Ketan Lumbu, and Soponyono, have been used as genetic sources or parents because of their sturdy stems, few tillers, long panicles, and large number of grains per panicle [33,36][7][10].
The development of NSV in Indonesia began in 1995 [37][11] with four varieties were later introduced, namely Cimelati (2001), Gilirang (2002), Ciapus (2003), and Fatmawati (2003). However, all four varieties have drawbacks, including high empty grain content and low resistance to major pests and diseases. This requires the assembly of a New Type of Superior Variety with a higher yield potential, increased resistance to major pests and diseases, and improved quality [38][12].
In 2001, NSV research became more intense with the introduction of more NPT: IRRI 1 and second-generation elite lines, IRRI 2 (the crossing of NPT IRRI 1 and Indica rice lines). The selection and crossing of new varieties used IRRI 1 and IRRI 2 [37][11]. The developed varieties have an improved rice taste (more delicious, fluffier) and are resistant to plant-disturbing organisms. Over the last few decades, the purpose of assembling high-yielding varieties has been to produce high-yielding rice that can withstand environmental stresses, pests, and diseases. The varieties include Inpari and Inpara, produced by the Indonesian Center for Rice Research (ICRR) [39][13]. Resistant varieties can play a vital role in controlling pest attacks on rice plants [40,41,42][14][15][16].
The IR64 national planted area was 45.5% in 2002, indicating a low adoption of NSV by farmers. This requires continued efforts to disseminate NSV [43][17]. Several factors account for the slow development of NSV: (1) the superiority of NSV over the existing varieties, (2) lack of interest by the seed industry to develop NSV, and (3) limited supply of seed sources for commercial seed propagation [44][18]. NSV properties of interest to farmers include age, plant height, productive tillers, resistance to pests, and yield [45][19]. Productivity was no longer an adoption issue because most NSV yields were higher than those of the farmers. This showed that farmers preferred Inpari 12 less, although it showed high productivity and early maturity due to its taste [46][20]. The main concern was the limited availability of NSV seeds owing to a shortage of seed sources [47][21].
In 2012, the Ministry of Agriculture released 493 superior varieties, followed by 57 high-yielding rice varieties from 2010 to 2015, including 31 varieties of lowland rice, 6 varieties of swamp rice, 9 varieties of highland rice, and 11 varieties of hybrid rice [48][22]. The latest data from 2014 showed that Ciherang still dominated rice cultivation in South Sumatra, with an area of 635,195 ha (74.83% of the planted area), Ciliwung variety 72,867 ha, local varieties 68,780 ha, IR42 29,187 ha, and other varieties less than 14,000 ha. Even until 2013, Ciherang was the dominant rice cultivated in Indonesia, with a 37.1% planted area [49][23]. Subsequently, 35 NSVs were released between 2016 and 2020 [50][24].

2. Integrated Crop Management (ICM)

A limited-scale concept test was conducted in Indonesia, between 1996 and 1997. The holistic integration of crop management practices is essential in Integrated Crop Management Packages (ICMPs) with a flexible approach to adapting to existing environmental, socioeconomic, and market factors [2][25]. Integrated Crop Management (ICM) practices encompass approaches to managing land, climate, water, crops, pests, and plant diseases to increase productivity, farm income, and environmental sustainability. The four principles of ICM are integration, interaction, dynamics, and participation. The components of ICM are basic technology and the selection of technology components. The basic technology consists of (1) modern varieties, (2) healthy and high-quality seeds, (3) efficient fertilization, (4) ICM according to target pest, and the selection of technological components consisting of (1) crop management, (2) early age paddy seedlings, (3) organic fertilizers, (4) intermittent irrigation, (5) liquid fertilizers, and (6) harvest and post-harvest handling [51][26]. In addition, political policies, especially prices, have a strong influence on production [52][27].
The results of ICM application in irrigated rice fields at the experimental scale (1–1.25 ha) conducted by the ICRR since 1999 indicated an average yield increase of 37%. The rate decreased to 27% at a higher assessment level (1–5 ha) and to 16% at 30 ICM locations with an area of 50–100 ha. Moreover, increased ICM grain yields and improved rice quality have reduced rice cultivation costs as well as maintaining health and environmental sustainability [53][28]. ICM increased production by 5–12% relative to traditional farming models. Labour shortages in future agriculture have been replaced by the introduction and application of machine tools, from the manufacturing of nurseries, soil treatment, planting, weeding, and harvesting machinery in rice-growing centres in Indonesia.
An effort by The Indonesian Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (IAARD) to boost the production and productivity of food crops was to modify the planting system using the Jajar Legowo (Jarwo) technique in 2008. This technique adjusts the spacing to compact paddy clumps in rows, widens the space between compact rows, and optimizes growth space and sunlight. For example, in Jarwo 2:1 (2 rows-1 space), all rice clumps were planted with spaces (empty row) after every two rows to ensure that they benefitted from the boundary effect [54][29]. The planting system using the Jarwo technique offers advantages such as: (1) higher plant population, (2) lower pests (rats and snails) attack, and (3) reduced iron toxicity [55][30]
The IAARD introduced Jarwo Super Technology (JST) in 2018, which upgrades the former Jarwo technology by adding integrated crop management using biodecomposer and agricultural machinery in irrigated paddy field. As a result, JST was able to increase production to 1.7–2.97 tonnes/ha [56,57][31][32]. The adoption of Jarwo Super increased the rice yield by 12–37%, while the allocation of agricultural costs for Jarwo Super practice was 37.19% and for traditional planting farmers was 43.59%. The values for each revenue/cost (R/C) ratio were 2.69 and 2.29, while the B/C ratios were 1.69 and 1.29, with an MBCR value of 5.25, meaning that the introduction of JST was financially feasible [57,58][32][33]. However, JST requires certain fundamental aspects that must be implemented on site: (1) NSV with high yield potential, (2) bio-decomposer, given before soil processing, (3) biofertilizer and balanced fertilization based on soil testing equipment, (4) pest management using biopesticides and chemical pesticides for the control threshold, and (5) agricultural tools and machinery, especially for planting (transplanter) and harvesting (combined harvester) (IAARD, 2016). JST 2:1 application can increase yield by 1483 kg/ha, whereas JST 4:1 (4 rows-1 space) has an increased yield of 852 kg/ha compared to the non-Jarwo planting system [59][34]. ICM approaches [2][25] have the potential to accelerate yield gap bridging and increase production. Approaches include locally available technologies, active institutional support from governments (especially for inputs and village credit), and stronger research and extension linkages. Thus, the technological packages specified for the location moving towards “prescription farming” can be made available and popularized. However, the gaps in yield performance should first be understood.

3. Implication of Agricultural Machine Tools Innovation

The introduction of more efficient technologies for handling, drying, storing, and milling rice in villages is crucial for reducing post-production losses [2][25]. Innovation is a shift in the understanding, practice, methods, and habits that were previously transformed into new things, reflected in the final outcome, adoption, discovery, process, and behavioural change in the use of technology. The proper use of agricultural tools and machinery is a measurement tool that increases the production and efficiency of labour and time to become a nation’s competitiveness point [60][35]. The requirement and availability of agricultural machine tools in Indonesia can be seen in Table 1.
Table 1.
The requirement and availability of agricultural machine tools in Indonesia (2010–2016).
Year Tractor (2 Wheels) Tractor (4 Wheels) Water Pump Rice Transplanter
Requirement Availability Requirement Availability Requirement Availability Requirement Availability
2010 320,012 4.036 177,834 7 533,503 3622 400,128 0
2011 323,838 662 17,991 11 539,731 410 404,798 176
2012 325,091 1.567 180,606 50 541,818 600 406,363 0
2013 324,484 3.996 180,269 0 540,807 2002 405,605 153
2014 325,977 15.435 181,098 0 543,295 4069 407,471 379
2015 327,476 25.509 181,931 1244 545,794 16,271 409,345 507
2016 328,982 262.090 182,768 2822 548,304 354,699 411,228 8601
Using agricultural machinery can reduce farming costs and provide farmers with benefits that can help them achieve food self-sufficiency. Furthermore, agricultural mechanization has good prospects if it is preceded by a mapping of needs, available resources, and an adequate institutional environment. Therefore, it is possible to reduce agricultural costs and increase efficiency [61][36]. Therefore, technological innovation using agricultural machinery is crucial for advancing Indonesian agriculture [62][37].
Since Indonesia’s independence (1945), farm equipment has undergone significant changes under human power, motor, wind, water, and other energy sources. The weakness of traditional harvesters is a yield loss of approximately 9.52–10%, with large areas of rice fields and large quantities of labour for harvesting. Over time, harvesters have become increasingly scarce because the agricultural workforce has shifted to the industrial sector, resulting in higher harvester costs. One study found that the use of conventional harvesting tools caused approximately 10% (9.52%) yield failure. The adoption of tractors increased from 15.2% in 1990 to 19.4% in 1993, whereas the adoption of rice threshers increased from 15.4% to 25.6% [63][38]. The gradual development of harvesting tools before soil processing tools indicated that the stages of rice cutting, collection of rice pieces, and threshing were critical points of yield loss [64][39].
A large area of rice field requires a large number of harvesters. Farmers may use a reaper, stripper, combine harvester, or rice mower to overcome labour shortages and reduce yield losses. A study [65][40] revealed that a rice mower reduced crop losses by 1.44% and was economically feasible. The break-even point value when using a rice mower machine was 1.88 ha year−1. The Net Present Value (NPV) of the rice mower machine was IDR 10,232,314.18 year−1, and the benefit/cost (B/C) ratio of the rice mower machine was 1192. Hand tractors, mechanical threshers, pedal threshers, and pest sprayers are all components that can be created and produced locally. This would create income opportunities for the local community and farmers, whereas owners or contractors of equipment, operators, and workshops would see an increase in revenue.

4. Implication of Integrated Cultivation Calendar (ICCIS), Indonesia Modern Farmer Information System

In order to increase and accelerate access to information for users, particularly extension workers and farmers, the Indonesian Ministry of Agriculture, through the IAARD, has developed a web-based information technology system and applications using smartphones, known as the ICCIS. This system is based on climatic variability and water availability for crops. ICCIS provides a potential planting time model for food crops, particularly rice, maize, and soybean [66][41]. Information on planting calendar estimations is supplemented with additional information, such as areas prone to flooding, droughts, pests, and disease attacks. It also provides new varieties and recommendations for the proper dosage of fertilizer, agricultural machinery, and adequacy of livestock nutrition as a reference point for decision makers in food crop policy formulation at the sub-district, regency, and provincial levels.
The future of food production is expected to become more complicated and demanding. Food production is affected by factors, such as climate variability and climate change. Indonesia Agricultural Research and Development has developed a Crop Calendar Information System (ICCIS) to adapt to climate change. The recommendations included in the ICCIS are planting time, cropping patterns, and adaptive technology integrated web-based based on climate forecasts and the season to date [67][42]. This technology can provide a wide range of recommendations regarding the appropriate technology to adapt to climate change and the availability of supporting innovation and current farming patterns [67,68][42][43]. The ICCIS is updated bi-annually based on two seasons in Indonesia: the wet season from October to March and the dry season from April to September. The coverage area of ICCIS is 7,459,891 ha, distributed across five major islands, those being Sumatra (1,752,308 ha), Java (3,472,864 ha), Kalimantan (723,947 ha), Sulawesi (972,854 ha), and East Indonesia (537,919 ha).
The new ICCIS feature provides a map of rice-growing stages from Sentinel-2 (S-2) images with a resolution of 10 m × 10 m. Sentinel-2 from the Copernicus Hub enables users to download the latest images of the Earth’s surface every five days with two constellations of satellites at no charge. S-2 provides a multispectral imaging system that correlates the growth stages of rice. Classification of rice growth stage based on the work applied machine learning to classify bare land, vegetative, reproductive, and maturation stages of 10 bands of S-2 with high precision [69][44].
Machine learning technique is the basis for an automated mapping system for rice growth stages across the official Indonesian rice area of 7.1 million ha from regency into village levels, divided into 5525 sub-districts. The system also calculates the daily aggregation of village areas on a national basis. On average, the system can update information from 30 regencies on a daily basis and upload the information into cloud storage for user-friendly access. For the entire 2020 year, 12,280 regencies’ maps and 81,874 sub-district maps were produced. The highest and lowest data acquisitions occurred in August 2020 and January 2020, with 15,809 and 6340 maps at the sub-district level, respectively. The application of the yield estimation model using the NDVI value was developed from linear regression analysis to estimate rice yield with a mean precision value of 80.3% [70][45].

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