Occurrences of Endotoxin in Agriculture: Comparison
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Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Catherine Yang and Version 1 by Dipendra Mahato.

Agricultural operations and the processing sector generate dust laden with endotoxin in the workplace. Endotoxin, a pro-inflammatory agent, has adverse effects on health, especially in the lungs, as exposure to endotoxin reduces lung function capacity. Endotoxin exposure to workers and its harmful impact on the health of agricultural workers needs to be studied in detail for future interventions to reduce exposure to endotoxin.

  • endotoxin
  • lung function
  • gram-negative bacteria

1. Introduction

Agriculture can be related to the generation of enormous amounts of dust, of which organic dust from agricultural activities is the primary source of endotoxin. The endotoxin concentration is a significant concern in agricultural operations and sectors because the exposure value exceeds the recommended threshold value. The occurrence of endotoxin in different animal housing, food processing and other agricultural industries, such as hemp and cotton, are presented in Table 21, Table 32 and Table 43. The location of dust measurements was inside the farms or industries.
There is a variation in the occurrence of endotoxin in agricultural settings. This variation may be due to different sources of dust in agricultural settings. The harvesting of crops (nuts) using a mechanical harvester results in a higher concentration of dust [81,82][1][2]. Endotoxin has a significant correlation with the temperature [60,82,83][2][3][4]. The endotoxin concentration increases with an increase in the temperature [82][2] and relative humidity [60,84,85][3][5][6]. The endotoxin concentration is significantly higher on warmer days than on cold days [86,87][7][8]. In poultry and swine buildings, there is an increase in the dust and endotoxin concentration on winter days as ventilation is reduced to conserve heat [88][9]. The concentration of endotoxin in dust decreases due to the growth of fungi and bacteria in the livestock feed in poultry and swine farms [66][10]. The animal feeds may contribute to endotoxin contamination, but the major source of endotoxin inside animal houses is animal feces [88,89][9][11].
Endotoxin assessments depend on different sampling, extraction and analysis procedures followed [24][12]. The endotoxin concentration is higher during livestock farming than during crop farming [81][1]. The endotoxin concentration increases with an increase in the density of animals that are reared (pig) and a reduction in the frequency of cleaning in swine houses [88][9]. The concentration of endotoxin depends on the duration of exposure [88][9] and the type of workplace [90][13].
Table 21.
Occurrence of endotoxin in animal housing around the world.
Location of Sampling Country No. of Samples Dust Concentration, mg/m3 Fraction of Dust Analytical Method Endotoxin

Concentration		 Range of Endotoxin Concentration Concentration Range of Endotoxin ConcentrationAffected Population Reference
Reference
Poultry farm
[
105
]
[
32
]
Table 43.
Occurrence of endotoxin in other different agricultural industries around the world.
Location of Sampling Country No. of Samples Dust Concentration, mg/m3 Fraction of Dust Analytical Method Endotoxin Concentration Range of Endotoxin Concentration Reference
Switzerland 36 7.01 (0.42–21.75)
Rice millsTotal Dust (PM10) Kinetic-turbidimetric (KT) Limulus assay test 257.58 ng/m3 Malaysia18.99–1634.8 ng/m3 79 79 Inhalable Chromogenic Endpoint LALFarmers AM: 0.29 EU/m3 -[ [
Textile Mills Shanghai, China20] 56[29]21
1.74 Inhalable KC LAL assay test 2226.83 EU/m3 Nil [5][33]][14]
Pig production Denmark Grain, seed and legume production sector The Netherlands40 3.95 (1.11–13.75) Total Dust (PM10) 15 GM: 2.5KT Limulus assay test Inhalable58.01 ng/m3 0.90QKC LAL1.30–1101.7 ng/m GM: 2700 EU/m3 96–41,200 EU/m3
Licensed private pesticide applicators3 Farmers [24][ Inhalable KC LAL assay test 163 EU/m312] - [17][[21][14]
USA 20434] Pig production Germany 100 5.00 (<0.09–76.7) Total Dust (PM10) KT Limulus assay test Grain, seed and legume processing industries76.3 ng/m3 The Netherlands0.01–2090.1 ng/m3 Farmers 173 GM: 1.4 Inhalable QKC LAL test GM: 500 EU/m3 2.3–149,060 EU/m3 [24][12]
Textile sectors Nepal[ 2421] AM: 2.34; GM: 0.81 Inhalable LAL assay AM: 4460; GM: 2160 EU/m3[14]
86–26,300 EU/m3 [19][35] Floor-housed poultry Canada 181 9.56 Total Dust Chromogenic-end point (CEP) LAL assay test
Animal processing industries The Netherlands1106.40 EU/m 813 GM: 0.4 Inhalable QKC LAL test GM: 51 EU/mNil 3Poultry workers [48
Greenhouse2–6230 EU/m3 [ Denmark24 75 AM: 0.36; GM: 0.25 Inhalable Kinetic LAL Am: 96.9; GM: 44.4 EU/m3]][15]
95% CI: 32.4–60.8[12] [21][14] Cage-housed poultry Canada 122 7.57 Total Dust 1291.47 EU/m3 Nil Poultry workers [48][15]
Seed processing industry The Netherlands 101 GM: 1.6 Inhalable
Ornament plant or flower production Spain 37 <0.09 (<0.09–0.88) Total Dust (PM10)LAL assay KT Limulus assay testGM: 1800 EU/m3 0.36 ng/m310–274,000 EU/m3 [25 0.05–12.68 ng/m3][30] [21][14] Poultry farm Denmark 14 AM: 5.7; GM: 3.5 Inhalable Quantitative kinetic chromogenic (QKC) LAL test AM: 1960 EU/m3
Animal production sector (11 companies)
Cotton mill (threshing of cotton)The Netherlands; GM: 805 EU/m 273 61–7090 EU/m3 - GM: 2.4[ Inhalable QKC LAL test GM: 1190 EU/m3 62–8120 EU/m3 India 2[ 25 - LAL gel clot test 0.625 µg/m324][12]91][16]
- [23][36] Pig production Taiwan, Republic of China 95 - Respirable Kinetic Limulus assay test 47 EU/m3 0.02–1643 EU/m
Coffee processing factories3 Tanzania 193 AM: 3.69; GM: 2.50 Total Dust KC LAL test AM: 8200; GM: 3500 EU/m3Worker 42–75,083 EU/m3 [104][
Outdoor sickle harvesting of maize in farm India 231] 2.5[88 -][9 LAL gel clot test]
0.0625 µg/m3 - [23][36] Swine farms South Korea 36 0.505 Inhalable
Hog load-out taskLAL Kinetic QCL USA812 EU/m3 Nil Workers 19 7.14 (2.01–31.06)
Outdoor sickle harvesting of sorghum in farmInhalable KC LAL assay test 12,150 EU/m3 India 2 2.5 - LAL gel clot test 0.0625 µg/m33497–84,357 EU/m3[92][17]
[ -105][32] [23][36] Swine farms South Korea 36 0.128 Respirable LAL Kinetic QCL kit 38.6 EU/m3 Nil Workers [
Swine building power washing 1392 - Impinger] KC LAL assay test[17]
Outdoor sickle harvesting of pearl millet in farm India40,353 EU/m 2 7.53 - LAL gel clot test 0.625 µg/m3 - [23][36] Pig farm Italy 18 - PM10 (≤0.49 µm) Endpoint chromogenic LAL
Outdoor threshing of pearl millet India16.261 EU/m 2 55 -3 - - LAL gel clot test[93][18]
31.25 µg/m3 - [23][36] Pig rearing farmers Denmark 354 AM: 4.9; GM: 3.4 Inhalable Dust QKC LAL test AM: 6200; GM: 1500 EU/m3 13.69–370,000 EU/m3 Pig farm workers [94][19]
Outdoor threshing of maize India 2 92.5 - LAL gel clot test 31.25 µg/m3 - [23][36] Pig farm Denmark 354 AM: 4.9; GM: 3.4 Inhalable QKC LAL test AM: 6240; GM: 1490 EU/m3 13.69–374,000 EU/m3 Worker [
Cotton mill (carding and yarning) India95 2 2.5 - LAL gel clot test 0.0625 µg/m3][ -20]
[23][36] Mixed farms (cattle and pigs) Denmark 8 AM: 2.9; GM: 1.9 Inhalable QKC LAL test AM: 900; GM: 448 EU/m3 13.69–2910 EU/m3
Cleaning of Bengal gram in godown India 2 115 - LAL gel clot test 62.5 µg/m3 -Worker [23][36][95][20]
Cattle farms Denmark 124 AM: 1.6; GM: 1.0 Inhalable QKC LAL test AM: 759; GM: 358 EU/m3 13.69–5890 EU/m3 Worker [
Cleaning of sorghum in godown India95 2 70 -][ LAL gel clot test20]
6.25 µg/m3 - [23][36] Dairy Denmark 124 AM: 1.6; GM: 1.0 Inhalable QKC LAL test AM: 760; GM: 360 EU/m3 13.69–5900 EU/m3 Worker [95][20]
Cleaning of wheat in godown India 2 50 - LAL gel clot test 62.5 µg/m3 - [23][36] Dairy farms France 112 AM: 0.42; GM: 0.24 Thoracic Kinetic LAL test AM: 318; GM: 128 EU/m3 2–8672 EU/m3 Dairy farmers [96]
5401–180,864 EU/m3][
Cleaning of red gram in godown India21 2 77.5 - LAL gel clot test 62.5 µg/m3 - [23][36] Dairy farms Ireland 38 AM: 1.7; GM: 1.5 Inhalable QKC LAL test AM: 197; GM: 128 EU/m3 26–900 EU/m3 Worker [
Grinding of grain for flour India97 2 150 -][ LAL gel clot test22]
1.25 µg/m3 - [23][36] Cattle feeding section USA 15 AM: 1.272; GM: 0.9148 Inhalable Recombinant Factor C assay AM: 237.9; GM: 163.3 EU/m3
Cleaning of rice in godown India 2- Worker [98][23]
257.5 - LAL gel clot test 124.9 µg/m3 - [23][36] Cattle miking section USA 91 AM: 0.9304; GM: 0.7856 Inhalable
Horticulture sector (21 companies) The Netherlands 291 GM: 0.6 InhalableRecombinant Factor C assay AM: 419.5; GM: 320.2 EU/m3 - Worker QKC LAL test GM: 170 EU/m3 1.6–191,430 EU/m3 [24][12][98][23]
Free stall dairy USA 4 - Inhalable (<100 µm) Kinetic LAL 129.3 EU/m3   - [
Gin house India99   2.11 - LAL technique 2.77 µg/m3 2.16–3.38 µg/m3 [69][37]][24]
Dairy farms USA 114 GM: 0.67
Grain handling companies Norway 166 GM: 1Inhalable Recombinant Factor C (rfc) assay GM: 438 EU/m3 0.05–4430 EU/m3 InhalableDairy farm worker QKC LAL test[ GM: 628 11–64,250 [90][13]100][25]
Minks Denmark 7 AM: 1.4; GM: 1.3 Inhalable QKC LAL test AM: 301; GM: 214 EU/m3 93–1050 EU/m3 -
Soil tillage USA 4 - Inhalable Kinetic LAL 34.3 EU/m3 - [99][[95][20]
24] Equine farms USA 58 - Respirable Kinetic chromogenic (KC) LAL test - 1.72–19.0 EU/m
Bean threshing USA 43 -- Inhalable[101][26]
Kinetic LAL 220.3 EU/m3 - [99][24] Equine farms USA 58 - Inhalable KC LAL test -
Hemp processing plant UK - - Inhalable Kinetic QCL test AM: 19,569.4; GM: 14,345 EU/m350.2–1024 EU/m3 - 2177–36,962 EU/m3[101][26]
[106][38] Horse stables The Netherlands 95 AM: 2.4; GM:1.2 Inhalable Quantitative kinetic LAL method
Textile and garment factories Ethiopia 95Am: 2073; GM: 555 EU/m3 AM: 1.3; GM: 0.75 Inhalable QKC LAL test<22.19–48,484 EU/m3 Workers AM: 2647; GM: 831 EU/m3 12–30,801 EU/m3 [107][39][102][27]
Livestock farms The Netherlands 211 AM: 0.023; GM: 0.0215 PM10 QKC LAL test 0.657 EU/m3 GM: 0.46–0.66 EU/m3 Outside animal farms [103][28]
Table 32.
Occurrence of endotoxin during different agricultural operations around the world.
Location of Sampling Country No. of Samples Dust Concentration, mg/m3 Fraction of Dust Analytical Method Endotoxin
Wheat harvesting
Colorado, USA
-
GM: 0.83, AM: 1.32
Total dust
Quantitative chromogenic modification of LAL
GM: 54.24; Mean: 104.6 EU/m
3
4.4–744.4 EU/m
3
[
108
]
[
40
]
Sawmill industries Norway 481 GM: 0.09 Thoracic Kinetic LAL assay GM: 3 EU/m3 - [109][41]
Sawmills Croatia - - Respirable Quantitative chromogenic end-point LAL 336.5 EU/m3 - [110][42]
AM: arithmetic means; GM: geometric mean.

2. Occurrence of Endotoxin in Animal Housing

Any structure that houses livestock is certain to produce dust. Dust can be generated from feed, excreta, feathers, fur etc. The occurrence of endotoxin in animal housing around the world is presented in Table 21. The animals and workers are exposed to different levels of dust in animal housing. The floor-housed poultry rearing system in Canada has the highest level of total dust (9.56 mg/m3) [48][15]. The cage-housed poultry system has lower dust concentrations due to the fact that the poultry is kept in the layer system and the poultry cannot perform dust bathing on the floor, which reduces the dust. The endotoxin concentration was found to be lower in the floor-housed poultry rearing system than in the cage system. In a floor-housed poultry rearing system, the excreta are collected in the floor and the moisture is absorbed by the bedding material, which is not the case with the cage-house poultry rearing system. The inhalable dust concentration in poultry farms of Denmark has a dust concentration of 5.7 mg/m3, which is above the permissible exposure limit [91][16]. In the case of the swine/pig farms, the dust generated was found to be in the range of 0.128 [92][17] to 5.0 mg/m3 [21][14] and the geometric mean of endotoxin concentration varies from 16.261 [93][18] to 1500 EU/m3 [94][19] The reason for higher endotoxin levels is due to concentrated animal feeds.
In dairy farms, the dust and endotoxin concentrations were measured at the milking section and feeding sections and in free stall dairy farms. The geometric mean of the dust concentration varies from 0.2 [96][21] to 1.7 mg/m3 [97][22], and the endotoxin concentration varies from 128 [98][23] to 448 EU/m3 [91][16]. The lowest concentration of dust was observed in a mink farm (7 mg/m3) [95][20], and the highest concentration of dust was reported in horse stables of the Netherlands (95 mg/m3) [102][27], and the endotoxin concentration was 214 [95][20] to 555 EU/m3 [102][27]. The endotoxin and dust concentrations were higher in pig farms than in cattle and poultry farms due to the higher density of animals and use of concentrated feeds in pig farms. Environmental factors, such as temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity, affect the levels of airborne endotoxins at the farms [82,90,103][2][13][28]. Endotoxin exposure is higher for persons living in rural regions with intense livestock production [10][43].

3. Occurrence of Endotoxin in Food Processing Industries

In food processing industries, water is used while processing the food. Endotoxin varies with the pre-processing methods used in food processing plants. Dry pre-processed methods (sun dried cherries of coffee) result in higher concentrations of endotoxin than wet pre-processed food processing methods by using water to depulp coffee cherries [104][31]. The occurrence of endotoxin in food processing industries around the world is presented in Table 32. The presence of water helps to reduce dust and endotoxin exposure to the workers, as the dust gets absorbed in the water [24][12]. Yang, 2013, reported that the total suspended dust increases on colder days [66][10].

4. Occurrence of Endotoxin in Other Industries

Byssinosis is commonly developed in workers who are exposed to cotton dust [5][33]. In rice mills, dust can be generated due to abrasion of the paddy. The occurrence of endotoxin in other agricultural industries around the world is presented in Table 43. During the post-harvest handling of cereal/fruit crops, dust is generated due to the breaking of plant materials. The workers are exposed to this contaminant and are exposed to dust, which can reduce the forced vital capacity of the workers [28,33,35,36,37,38,39][44][45][46][47][48][49][50]. Many researchers have collected data on inhalable, thoracic and total dust, but very few researchers have sampled the respirable fraction of dust samples [88,92,101,110][9][17][26][42]. The respirable dust fraction can penetrate beyond the terminal bronchioles of the lungs [28,41][44][51]. Respirable dust laden with endotoxin can cause serious health issues for the workers.

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