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The anticancer effects of daily consumption of polyphenols. These dietary polyphenols include chlorogenic acid, curcumin, epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate, genistein, quercetin, and resveratrol. These polyphenols have similar chemical and biological properties in that they can act as antioxidants and exert the anticancer effects via cell signaling pathways involving their reactive oxygen species (ROS)-scavenging activity. These polyphenols may also act as pro-oxidants under certain conditions, especially at high concentrations. Epigenetic modifications, including dysregulation of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) such as microRNAs, long noncoding RNAs, and circular RNAs are now known to be involved in the anticancer effects of polyphenols. These polyphenols can modulate the expression/activity of the component molecules in ROS-scavenger-triggered anticancer pathways (RSTAPs) by increasing the expression of tumor-suppressive ncRNAs and decreasing the expression of oncogenic ncRNAs in general. Multiple ncRNAs are similarly modulated by multiple polyphenols. Many of the targets of ncRNAs affected by these polyphenols are components of RSTAPs. Therefore, ncRNA modulation may enhance the anticancer effects of polyphenols via RSTAPs in an additive or synergistic manner, although other mechanisms may be operating as well.
- anticancer
- ROS
- polyphenols
1. Introduction
A number of epidemiological studies have provided evidence for the anticancer effects of daily polyphenol intake [1][2][3][4][5][6][1,2,3,4,5,6]. These dietary polyphenols include chlorogenic acid (CGA), curcumin (CUR), epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate (EGCG), genistein (GEN), quercetin (QUE) and resveratrol (RES), which are six major polyphenols in our dietary life and are found in vegetables, fruits, and beverages. Preclinical and cell-based studies have supported their anticancer effects and provided a mechanism of action for these polyphenols [1][2][3][5][1,2,3,5]. Recent studies have shown involvement of epigenetic modifications including dysregulation of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) such as micro RNAs (miRs), long noncoding RNAs (lncRs), and circular RNAs (circRs).
Researchers have provided updated information from human studies supporting the anticancer effects of consumption of green tea, coffee, red wine, soybeans, and curry and discussed the involvement of miRs in polyphenol action mechanisms (Table 1 and Table 2). Previous data have shown that the six major dietary polyphenols, chlorogenic acid (CGA), curcumin (CUR), epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate (, CUR, EGCG), genistein (GEN), genistein (QUE) GEN, QUE, and resveratrol (RES)RES, have similar properties since they can act as antioxidants and exert the anticancer effects via reactive oxygen species (ROS)-scavenger-triggered anticancer pathways (RSTAPs) (Figure 1) [7][8][7,8]. These dietary polyphenols are also known to act as pro-oxidants and reactive oxygen species (ROS)ROS generated can activate AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) which will result in polyphenols’ anticancer effects (Figure 1). Moreover, data indicated that at least three of the six polyphenols can commonly modulate several miRs associated with RSTAPs [7][8][7,8].
Figure 1. ROS-scavenger-triggered anticancer pathways (RSTAPs) and contribution of ncRNAs. lncRs upregulated and downregulated by polyphenols are in red and blue, respectively, on a yellow background. miRs upregulated and downregulated by polyphenols are in red and blue, respectively, on a green background.
Table 1.
Modulation of molecular targets of tumor-suppressor miRs upregulated by three to five CUR, EGCG, QUE, RES and GEN.
| miRs | miR-16 | miR-22 | miR-34a | miR-141 | miR-145 | miR-146a | miR-200c |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CUR |
Table 4.
miRs downregulated by one of six dietary polyphenols and their targets *.
| CGA | CUR | EGCG | GEN | QUE | RES | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EGCG | GEN | QUE | RES | ||||
| Polyphenols | |||||||
| miR-7 SET8↓, Bcl-2↓, p53↑ [80]; Skp2↓, p57↑, p21↑ [81] miR-9 AKT↓, FOXO1↓ [82]; GSK-3β↑, β-catenin↑, Cyclin D1↓ [83] miR-15a Bcl-2↓ [9]; WT1↓ [84] miR-16-1 WT1↓ [84] miR-28-5p BECN1↓ [85] miR-29a DNMT1↓, 3A↓, 3B↓ [86] miR-30c-5p MTA1↓ [87] miR-33b HMGA2↓ [88]; XIAP↓ [89] miR-98 LIN28A↓, MMP2↓, MMP9↓ [90] miR-99a JAK1↓, STAT1↓, STAT3↓ [91] | CUR Yang et al. [9] EGCG Tsang et al.[10] QUE STsang et al. [10] QUE Sonoki et al. [11]; Zhaonoki et al. [11];[12 | : Hagiwara et al. | [ | 13 | ] | EMT↓ via vimentin, ZEB1↑, E-cadherin↓ RES: Dermani et al. [45] |
* Targets upregulated and downregulated by polyphenols through upregulation of miRs are indicated by ↑ and ↓, respectively. Bcl-2; B-cell lymphoma 2, HOXA10; homeobox A10, SP1; specificity protein 1, ESR1; estrogen receptor alpha 1, Erbb3; Erb-b2 receptor tyrosine kinase 3, NCoA1; nuclear receptor coactivator 1, HDAC6; histone deacetylase 6, MYCBP; Myc binding protein, PTEN; phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10, Wnt1; wingless and int-1, EMT; epithelial-mesenchymal transition, RTCB; RNA 2′,3′-cyclic phosphate and 5′-OH ligase, ROS; reactive oxygen species, HOTAIR; HOX transcript antisense RNA, Notch-1; Notch homolog protein 1, Sirt1; sirtuin 1, ABCE1; ATP-binding cassette E1, NF-κB; nuclear factor-κB, EGFR; epidermal growth factor receptor, MTA-2; metastasis-associated 2, Bax; Bcl2-associated X protein, MT1-MMP; membrane type 1-matrix metalloproteinase, Bmi-1; B-cell-specific Moloney murine leukemia virus integration site 1, CDK; cyclin-dependent kinase, E2F3; E2F transcription factor 3, HNRNPA1; heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1, Oct4; octamer-binding transcription factor 4, SOX-2; SRY [sex determining region Y]-box 2, ZEB1; zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 1.
Table 2.
Modulation of molecular targets of oncogenic miRs downregulated by three to five CGA, CUR, EGCG, QUE, RES and GEN.
| miRs | miR-20a | miR-21 | miR-25 | miR-27a | miR-93 | miR-106b | miR-155 | miR-221 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| miR-101 EZH2↓, EpCAM↓ [92]; Notch1↓ [93]; EZH2↓ [94] miR-124 Midkine↓ [95] | ] Zhao et al. [12]RES RESHagiwara et al. [13]; HagAzimiwara et al. [13]; Azimi et al. [14][14] |
|||||||||||||
| Polyphenols | CGA Huang et al. [46] CUR Gandhy et al. [47] EGCG Mirzaaghaei et al. [ |
miR-125a ERRα↓ [] |
||||||||||||
| miR-17 p21↑, G0/G1 arrest↑ [46] | 48] 96RES Dhar et al. [49]; Dhar et al. [50]] miR-138 Smad4↓, NF-kB↓, Cyclin D3↓ [97] miR-143 NF-kB↓ [98]; PGK1↓ [99]; Autophagy via ATG2B↓ [100] miR-181b CXCL1↓ [101] miR-185 DNMT1↓, 3A↓, 3B↓ [86] miR-192-5p XIAP↓ [102]; PI3K↓, AKT↓ [103]; Wnt/β-catenin↓ [104] miR-196b ** BCR-ABL↓ [55] miR-206 mTOR↓, AKT↓ [105] miR-215 XIAP↓ [102] miR-340 XIAP↓ [106] miR-384 circ-PRKCA↓ [107] miR-491 PEG10↓ [108] miR-593 MDR1↓ [109 | CUR Sun et al. [15 |
miR-19a,b PTEN↑ [131] miR-125a-5p TP53↑ [132] miR-130a Nkd2↑ [133] miR-7641 p16↑ [134]]; Sreenivasan et al. [16]; Sibbesen et al. [17] EGCG Li et al. [18] QUE Zhang et al. [19] |
CGA Wang et al. [51] CUR Mudduluru et al. [52]; Subramaniam et al. [53]; Zhang et al. [54]; Taverna et al. [55]; Yallapu et al. [56] EGCG Fix et al. [57] **; Siddiqui et al. [58] GEN Zaman et al. [59] RES Tili et al. [60]; Sheth et al. [61]; Liu et al. [62]; Li et al. [63]; Zhou et al. [64]miR-15b STIM2↓, Orai1↓ [110] miR-29b KDM2A↓ [111] miR-485-5p RXRα↓ [112] let-7b HMGA2↓ [113] |
miR-98-5p CTR1↑ [135]CUR Guo et al. [20]; Sun et al. [21]; Toden et al. [22]; Sun et al. [15] EGCG Chakrabarti et al. [23]; Li et al. [18]; Chakrabarti et al. [24]; Toden et al. [25]; Mostafa et al. [26] GEN Hsieh et al. [27]; Xia et al. [ |
CUR28]; Chiyomaru et al. [29] RES Hagiwara et al. [13]; Otsuka et al. [30]; Kumazaki et al. [31]; Yao et al. [32] |
Sun et al. [15] EGCG Fix et al. [57] **; Gordon et al. [34]; Zan et al. [65] RES Tili et al. [60]miR-574-3p RAC1↓, EGFR↓, EP300↓ [114] miR-1469 Mcl1↓ [115] let-7d THBS1↓ [116] |
miR-23b-3p PTEN↑ [136] miR-151a-5p CASZ1↑, IL1RAPL1↑, SOX17↑, N4BP1↑, ARHGDIA↑ [137] miR-155 PTEN↑ [73] miR-221 miR-222 ARHI↑ [78] miR-223 Fbw7↑ [138] miR-223 E-cadherin↑ [139] miR-873-5p FOXM1↓ [140] miR-1260b sFRP1↑, Smad4↑, Dkk2↑ [141][142][141,142CUR Toden et al. [33] EGCG Gordon et al. [34] GEN Chiyomaru et al. [35] RES Hagiwara et al. [13] |
]CUR Toden et al. [22]; Noratto et al. [66] EGCG Fix et al. [57] ** GEN Xia et al. [miR-1-3p TAGLN2↓ [11767]; Xu et al. [68]; Sun et al. [69]] miR-16-5p WEE1↓ [118] miR-22 Wnt1↓ [19] miR-34a-5p SNHG7↓ [119] miR-142-3p HSP70 ↓ [120] miR-197 IGFBP5↓ [121] miR-200b-3p Notch1↓ [122] miR-217 KRAS↓ [123] miR-503-5p Cyclin D1↓ [124] miR-1254 CD36↓ [125] miR-1275 IGF2BP1↓, IGF2BP3↓ [126] let7-a KRAS↓ [127] let-7c Numbl/Notch1↑ [ |
miR-30d-5p Notch↓ Wnt↓ [143128]CUR Mirgani et al. [36]; Liu et al. [37] EGCG Toden et al. [25] GEN Wei et al. [38] QUE Zhou et al. [39] RES Sachdeva et al. [40] |
CGA Huang et al. [46] EGCG Chakrabarti et al. [23]; Chakrabarti et al. [24] RES Singh et al. [70] |
miR-424-3p Galectin-3↓ [129]CUR Wu et al. [41] GEN Li et al. [42] QUE Tao et al. [43] |
CGA Huang et al. [46] EGCG Chakrabarti et al. [23] RES Dhar et al. [50]; Dhar et al. [49]CUR Toden et al. [33]; Soubani et al. [44] EGCG Toden et al. [25] RES Hagiwara et al. [13]; Dermani et al. [ |
CGA Zeng et al. [7145] |
| ] | CUR | Ma et al. | [ | 72 | ] GEN de la Parra et al. [73] QUE Boesch-Saadatmandi et al. [74] RES Tili et al. [75] |
CUR Zhang et al. [76]; Allegri et al. [77] EGCG Allegri et al. [77] GEN Chen et al. [78] |
Targets * | Bcl-2↓ CUR: Yang et al. [9]; EGCG: Tsang et al. [10] HOXA10↓ QUE: Zhao et al. [12] |
||||||
| Targets * | p21↑ CGA: Huang et al. [46] PTEN↑ RES: Dhar et al. [49] | SP1↓, ESR1↓ CUR: Sun et al. [15] Erbb3↓ CUR: Sreenivasan et al. [16] NCoA1↓, HDAC6↓, MYCBP↓, PTEN↓, CUR: Sibbesen et al. [17] Wnt1/β-catenin↓ QUE: Zhang et al. [19] |
Smad7↑ CGA: Wang et al. [51] PDCD4↑ CUR: Mudduluru et al. [52] PTEN↑ CUR: Zhang et al. [54] PTEN↑ CUR: Taverna et al. [55] p21↑, p38 MAPK↑, Cyclin E2↓ GEN: Zaman et al. [59] PDCD4↑ RES: Sheth et al. [61] Bcl-2↓ RES: Liu et al. [62] NF-κB↓ RES: Liu et al. [63] AKT↓, Bcl-2↓ RES: Zhou et al. [64]Bcl-2↓, Bmi-1↓ CUR: Guo et al. [20] Bcl-2↓, CDK4↓, Cyclin D1↓ CUR: Sun et al. [21] Cyclin D↓, c-Myc↓, CDK6↓, Bcl-2↓ CUR: Toden et al. [22] miR-92↓, miR-93↓, miR-106b↓, miR-7-1↑, miR-34a↑, miR-99a↑ EGCG: Chakrabarti et al. [23] EMT↓, RTCB↓, ROS↑ GEN: Hsieh et al. [27] HOTAIR↓ GEN: Chiyomaru et al. [29] Notch-1↓ GEN: Xia et al. [28] Sirt1↓ via E2F3 RES: Kumazaki et al. [31] HNRNPA1↓ |
p53↑ EGCGRES: Otsuka et al. [30] Bcl-2↓ RES: Yao et al. [32] |
: Gordon et al. [34] PARP1↑, Caspase 3↑, Caspase 9↑ EGCG: Zan et al. [65]EMT↓ CUR: Toden et al. [33] HOTAIR↓ GEN: Chiyomaru et al. [35] Cancer stemness↓ |
Cyclin E1↓, c-Myc↓ via FBXW7 CURRES: Hagiwara et al. [13] |
: Toden et al. [22] ZBTB10-Sp↑ CUR: Noratto et al. [66] Sp1↓, Sp3↓ Sp4↓, EGFR↓, hepatocyte growth factor receptor↓, survivin↓, Bcl-2↓, Cyclin D1↓, NFκB↓, ZBTB4↑ CUR: Grandhy et al. [47] Spry2↑ GEN: Xu et al. [68]Oct4↓, SOX-2↓, Oct4B1↓, CUR: Mirgani et al. [36] Oct4↓, CD44↓, CD133↓, Cyclin D1↓, Cdk4↓ CUR: Liu et al. [37] c-Myc↓ EGCG: Toden et al. [25] ABCE1↓ GEN: Wei et al. [38] Caspase 3↑ QUE: Zhou et al. [39] |
p21↑ CGA: Huang et al. [46] Caspase 8↑, tBid↑, Calpain↑, Caspase 3↑ EGCG: Chakrabarti et al. [23]NF-κB↓ CUR: Wu et al. [41] EGFR↓ MTA-2↓, IRAK-1↓, NF-κB↓ GEN: Li et al. [ |
p21↑ CGA42] Caspase 3↑, Bax↑, EGFR↓ QUE: Tao et al. [43] |
: Huang et al. [46] PTEN↑ RES: Dhar et al. [50]; Dhar et al. [49]EMT↓ CUR: Toden et al. [33] PTEN↑, MT1-MMP↓ CUR: Soubani et al. [44] Cancer stemness↓ EGCG: Toden et al. [25] Cancer stemness↓ RES |
Inflammation↓ via NF-κB/NLRP3 CGA: Zeng et al. [71] SOCS1↓, IL-6↓, CUR: Ma et al. [72] PTEN↑, FOXO3a↑ GEN: de la Parra et al. [73] AP-1↓ via miR-663 RES: Tili et al. [75] |
PTEN↑, p27↑, p57↑, PUMA↑ CUR: Sarkar et al. [79] FGF2↓, MMP2↓, VEGF↓, HGF↓, CUR: Zhang et al. [76] miR-21↓, miR-146b↓, miR-221↓, miR-222↓ CUR: Allegri et al. [77] miR-221↓, EGCG: Allegri et al. [77] ARHI↑ GEN:Chen et al. [78] |
* Targets upregulated and downregulated by polyphenols through downregulation of miRs are indicated by ↑ and ↓, respectively. ** EGCG-rich Polyphenon-E. PTEN; phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10, Smad; Small mother against decapentaplegic, PDCD; programmed cell death, Bcl-2; B-cell lymphoma 2, NF-κB; nuclear factor-κB, AKT; AKT serine/threonine kinase 1, PARP; poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1, FBXW7; F-Box And WD Repeat Domain Containing 7, ZBTB10; Zinc finger and BTB domain containing 10, Sp1; specificity protein 1, EGFR; epidermal growth factor receptor, Spry2; Sprouty RTK signaling antagonist 2, tBid; truncated BH3 interacting domain death agonist, NLRP3; NLR family, pyrin domain containing 3, SOCS1; suppressor of cytokine signal 1, IL-6; interleukin-6, FOXO3a; forkhead Box O3, AP-1; Activator protein 1, PUMA; p53-upregulated modulator of apoptosis, ARHI; age-related hearing impairment, FGF2; fibroblast growth factor 2, MMP; matrix metalloproteinase, VEGF; vascular endothelial growth factor, HGF; hepatocyte growth factor.
Researchers further discuss the miR-modulating effects of polyphenols, which have been reported in studies using one or two of the six dietary polyphenols (Table 3 and Table 4). Furthermore, based on recent evidence on involvement of lncRs and circRs in anticancer mechanisms of these polyphenols, rwesearchers summarize the modulatory effects of six dietary polyphenols on lncRs and circRs in relation to their anticancer effects.
Table 3.
miRs upregulated by one of five dietary polyphenols and their proposed targets *.
* Upregulation (↑) and downregulation (↓) of miR targets by polyphenols are indicated. ** Downregulation by RES is reported [130]. SET8; SET domain-containing lysine methyltransferase 8, Bcl-2; B-cell lymphoma 2, Skp2; S-phase kinase-associated protein 2, AKT; AKT serine/threonine kinase 1, FOXO1; forkhead Box O1, GSK-3β; glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta, WT1; Wilms’ tumor-1, BECN1; beclin 1, DNMT; DNA methyltransferase, MTA1; metastasis-associated 1, HMGA2; high mobility group A2, XIAP; X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis, LIN28A; Lin-28 homolog A, MMP; matrix metalloproteinase, JAK1; Janus kinase 1; STAT; signal transducer and activator of transcription, EZH2; enhancer of zeste homolog 2, EpCAM; epithelial cell adhesion molecule, Notch1; neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 1, ERRα; estrogen-related receptor alpha, PGK1; phosphoglycerate kinase 1, ATG2B; autophagy-related 2B, CXCL1; chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1, PI3K; phosphoinositide-3 kinase, Wnt; wingless and int-1, BCR-ABL; BCR-ABL fusion gene, mTOR; mammalian target of rapamycin, circ-PRKCA; circ_0007580, PEG10; paternally expressed gene 10, MDR1; multidrug resistance mutation1, STIM2; Stromal interaction molecule 2, Orai1; ORAI calcium release-activated calcium modulator 1, KDM2A; lysine demethylase 2A, RXRα; retinoid X receptor alpha, RAC1; ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1, EGFR; epidermal growth factor receptor, EP300; E1A-associated protein P300, THBS1; thrombospondin 1, TAGLN2; transgelin 2, WEE1; WEE1 G2 checkpoint kinase, SNHG7; small nucleolar RNA host gene 7, HSP; heat shock protein, IGFBP; insulin-like growth factor binding protein, KRAS; KRAS proto-oncogene, GTPase, Numbl; NUMB like endocytic adaptor protein, Mcl1; myeloid cell leukemia 1, IGF2BP; insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA binding protein.
| ] | |||||
| miR-196b ** | miR-1290 | IGFBP3↑ | [130] |
* Upregulation (↑) and downregulation (↓) of miR targets by polyphenols are indicated. ** Upregulation by CUR is also reported [55]. PTEN; phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10, Nkd2; naked cuticle homolog 2, CTR1; copper transporter 1, CASZ1; castor zinc finger 1, IL1RAPL1; interleukin 1 receptor accessory protein like 1, SOX17; SRY-box transcription factor 17, N4BP1; NEDD4-binding protein 1, ARHGDIA; rho-GDP dissociation inhibitor-alpha, ARHI; age-related hearing impairment, Fbw7; F-Box and WD repeat domain-containing 7, FOXM1; forkhead box M1, sFRP1; secreted frizzled-related protein 1, Smad; small mother against decapentaplegic, Dkk2; Dickkopf-related protein 2, Wnt; wingless and int-1, IGFBP; insulin-like growth factor binding protein.
2. Involvements of miRs in Polyphenol-Mediated Anticancer Mechanisms
miRs are defined as small single-stranded molecules (approximately 20 to 25 nucleotides) and can regulate gene expression at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels, leading to modulation of beneficial health effects exerted by these polyphenols in diseases including cancer [7][8][7,8].
Table 1 and Table 2 summarize miRs modulated by at least three of six dietary polyphenols. Four of six dietary polyphenols upregulate miR-16, 34a and 141, and downregulate miR-20a and 221; five of six dietary polyphenols upregulate miR-145 and downregulate miR-21 and 155. Table 1 and Table 2 also list the molecular targets of miRs that are modulated by these polyphenols; targets associated with RSTAPs (Figure 1) are also shown in these tables. Thus, it appears that six dietary polyphenols can exert their anticancer effects not only by directly involving RSTAPs, but also by miR-mediated regulation of the molecular targets associated with RSTAPs.
One or two of the miRs up- and down-regulated by six polyphenols for which studies have been reported are listed in Table 3 and Table 4, respectively, together with determined or proposed targets of these miRs. Many miRs can target components of RSTAPs, but some contribute to other mechanisms that are not depicted in these pathways (Figure 1). Based on previous findings on positive crosstalk between NF-κB and Wnt/β-catenin signaling [144][145][144,145], the Wnt/β-catenin signaling is connected in Figure 1. Furthermore, previous findings are incorporated to show that TNF-α activates Wnt/β-catenin pathway, leading to increases in cancer stemness and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) which are involved in cancer cell renewals and tumorigenesis [146][147][148][146,147,148].