In recent years, increasingly prominent energy and environmental problems have pushed for higher requirements for buildings’ energy saving. According to the conventional energy-saving design method, the cooperative operation between architects, structural and equipment engineers and other professionals cannot run smoothly, so the energy-saving and emission reduction efficiency of the whole building cannot be improved effectively. The integrated design process (IDP) is a systematic method, which is applied in the scheme design stage and according to which the multi-level design factors of cities and buildings are considered comprehensively. It provides a concrete path of multi-specialty collaborative operation for the building’s climate responsive design.
Optimization Parameters | Objective Function |
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Heat transfer coefficients: wall, roof, floor, window frame and glazed window, heat absorption of walls, solar radiation absorption and visible light absorption, window–wall ratio, number of windows, g value of glass, transmissivity of daylight and visible light, open window area (natural ventilation), tilt angle and depth of external shading devices, type of shading, indoor and outdoor shading system, control strategy for shading devices, building shape, building shape coefficient, length–width ratio of building shape, ceiling height, building orientation, house area, airtightness/permeability, convection coefficient, and vegetation. | Economic nature: Minimization: life cycle cost (LCC), total investment cost, building operating cost and net present value (NPV). Energy: Minimization: total electrical load, lighting energy consumption and net energy deficit (NED). Environment: Minimization: impact of life cycle environment, assessment of the impact of life cycle and carbon emissions of life cycle. Comfort: Minimization: predicted mean votes (PMV), summer thermal discomfort, winter thermal discomfort, visual discomfort, long-term percentage of dissatisfied (LPD) and predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD). Others: Minimization: shape coefficient. Maximization: window opening ratio, heat transfer coefficient, solar radiation, space efficiency. |
Constraints | Algorithm |
NED ≤ 0; heating load ≤ 15 kWh/m2; annual building energy demand ≤ 5 Mj/m2; air exchange rate ≥ 0.6 ACH; total window width ≤ floor width. In the window areas, adequate natural lighting and ventilation must be guaranteed. Acceptable range of heat transfer coefficients of building envelope; budget constraints; constraints of design variables; maximum discomfort time fixed at 200–350 h; PMV ≤ 0.5–0.7; construction budget; life cycle cost budget. | Generalized pattern search (GPS), multivariate optimization, particle swarm optimization (PSO), non-dominated sorting genetic (NSGA-II) algorithm, genetic algorithm, life cycle assessment (LCA), artificial neural network (ANN), particle swarm optimization based on the Hook–Jeeves algorithm, sequential search (SS), tabu search algorithm (TSA), artificial bee colony (ABC). |
Decision making/sensitivity analysis—uncertainty quantification | |
Decision making: Weighted sum method (WSM), weighted product method (WPM), preference ranking based on ideal solutions, analytical hierarchical process (AHP), preference prioritization organization method for evaluation. |
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Sensitivity analysis–uncertainty quantification: Energy price, discount rate, CO2 emission price, climate, utility rates, setting points of heating and cooling, sensitivity of algorithm parameters, weight of objective function, decision preference thresholds, uncertainty of distributed design variables based on probability. |
Design Conditions | |
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Geographic location | Latitude, longitude and time zone of the region where the project is launched. |
Climate information | Typical local annual climate involves temperature, relative humidity, wind direction, wind speed, solar radiation, etc. The EnergyPlus website already provides downloadable climate data of major cities around the world; if multiple sources are available, comparative research is required, so that the one that best matches actual conditions can be selected. |
Surrounding physical environment | Topography, landforms, surrounding building envelopes and more can be obtained through external environmental research. |
Base conditions | Base size, shape, layout of greenery and water bodies, etc., can be obtained through field survey of the base. |
Local technical and economic conditions | The performance and price of commonly used, encouraged or restricted energy-saving products and technologies can be determined based on the relevant local standards, policy documents and market prices. |
Geographical culture | A survey must be conducted to gain information about local customers, lifestyle and culture. Particular attention should be paid to symbolic characteristics of the building and human use of the building. |
Regional experience in energy-saving design | Research on regional architecture or interviews with experts can be conducted to obtain information about the characteristics of building forms, spatial layout features and prototypes of energy-saving components. |
Technical information | |
Building materials | Physical properties of commonly used materials: heat transfer coefficient, density, specific heat capacity. |
Building components | Material composition and thickness of opaque components, material composition, thickness, transmission and absorption coefficients of light-transmitting components, etc., and size and dimension of prefabricated components. |
Heating and cooling equipment | The output power per unit area of rooms with different functions and the corresponding working schedule. |
Indoor lighting equipment | Thermal power of illumination per unit area of rooms with different functions and the corresponding working schedule. |
Indoor electrical equipment | Thermal power of indoor electrical equipment per unit area of rooms with different functions and the corresponding working schedule. |
Indoor personnel | The thermal power of indoor personnel per unit area of rooms with different functions and the corresponding working schedule. |
Indoor ventilation | The indoor fresh air requirement per unit area of rooms with different functions and the corresponding working schedule. |
Comparison Contents | EnergyPlus | DOE-2 | BlAST | IBLAST | DeST |
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], | the text-digging technology was integrated into the case-based reasoning (CBR) system to improve the decision-making efficiency of green building design. | Seven cases were randomly selected from seventy-one LEED cases as target cases to test how efficient the TM-CBR system is. | |||
In the model, only materials in the BREEAM database can be used, and the material library (GML) can only be used in ArchiCAD software. The material database in the BREEAM database cannot be updated automatically. | |||||
Thais et al. [151][64] | developed a framework for environmental impact assessment within the design life cycle. | In the article, two different whole building environmental impact assessment (EIA) tools are analyzed, including life cycle assessments (LCA) and green building rating systems (GBRS). | A software tool or framework needs to be developed to support designers in conducting whole life cycle EIA throughout the design process. | ||||
In the study of Ahmad et al. [152][65], | BIM and LCA tools were integrated with a database for designing sustainable building projects. | In the study, an integrated BIM-LCA model was described to simplify the process of sustainable design, build inter-operable design and analysis tools, and assist designers in quantifying the environmental impacts of design solutions. | The main disadvantage of the model is that it cannot be applied in the detailed design stage of a building project, as only information on commonly used components is stored in the database, with the information on a large number of green building materials uninvolved. In addition, the model is not fully integrated with automation, and some steps still require manual adjustment by the user. | ||||
It was difficult to obtain the original data; there was a limited number of cases; there was a lack of verification of a large number of empirical data. | |||||||
In the study of Mohammad et al. [153][66], | an evaluation model of integrating BIM and LCA was established. | Based on the ISO 14040 and 14044 guidelines in the existing database, the BIM-LCA integrated analysis framework was established with Autodesk Revit as the BIM-LCA program and applications of Green Building Studio and Tally in Revit as tools. | In the future, more parameters of building materials will be included in the study to assist in evaluating the energy consumption, carbon dioxide and environmental impact of different building materials in the whole life cycle of buildings. | In the study of Walaa et al. [142][55], | |||
Maria et al. [154][67 | both qualitative and quantitative methods were adopted. A comprehensive framework (IAF) for a green building rating and certification system was proposed. | In the study, a reference was provided for the development of a LEED system and different building rating and certification systems with a comprehensive framework; and interactive decision support tools, software management applications and user-friendly system interfaces were established. | However, in the study, the dominant position of some tools and how they impact important decisions were not clearly demonstrated; there was a lack of descriptions of iterative behaviors in the integration process in the proposed framework. | ||||
] | developed a multi-objective optimization model to obtain the minimum design parameters of greenhouse gas emission and life cycle cost in building operation. | Based on DAKOTA, TRNSYS and multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA), the multi-objective optimal designs were compared with typical houses in four climatic regions of Greece as examples. | In the study, attention was only paid to residential buildings and only under the climatic conditions in Greece. In the future, more different types of buildings will be considered, and more architectural design parameters will be included. | In the study of Yingyi Zhang [143][56], | the impact of parameter codes based on forms on the sustainable development of urban communities was evaluated. | In the study, the LEED-ND method was adopted to establish a code evaluation system based on parameter forms in order to guarantee the health of social environment and urban communities and the sustainable development of the communities. | The study was only conducted in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong. The findings were mainly obtained from the analysis of the Jordan Road community. In future studies, investigations of a larger scale can be conducted in different regions. |
In the study of Mohamed Marzouk [144][57 | |||||||
In the study of Hae Jin Kang [155][68], | a decision support tool suitable for early design stage was constructed to evaluate the performance and cost of CO2 emission reduction. A program with a database was developed. | In the study, a decision support tool was developed to comprehensively evaluate and compare the environmental and economic impacts in the early design stage, so as to achieve effective decision making. The tool could be used to improve the realization and popularization of nZEB, so that the evaluation results could be obtained quickly and simply, and the comprehensive performances of design alternatives could be compared. | The evaluation tools developed in the study are only suitable for the early design stage. In the future, more evaluation decision-making methods can be added to the building operation stage. | ], | |||
Farshid et al. [156] | a mixed integer optimization model was developed to help architects and owners select building materials during the design phase. Meanwhile, the costs and risks involved in the selection process needed to be considered. | [69]Deterministic and probabilistic cost analysis of various design alternatives can be conducted through the model developed in the study with reference to the LEED rating system based on the simulation optimization tool. | , | by combining the multi-objective optimization method with the BIM design process, solved the trade-off decision problems in implied energy and operational energy.The study analysis was only conducted for office buildings in Egypt and only with reference to the LEED rating system; more building types will be considered, and more green building rating systems will be incorporated in the future. | |||
The design prototype was developed with a low-energy residential building in Sweden as an example. The best design scheme for the use of LCE of the building was found through the trade-off calculation of implied energy and operational energy. | Further study needs to be conducted to reduce the time cost of calculation and expand the design framework, so that more design variables are covered, such as the geometry of the building, etc. | Jin Ouk Choi [145][58] | developed an integrated optimization tool for LEED evaluation. | In the study, the LEED decision and review index (LDRI) tool was established based on the MS Excel platform and MS Access database format. The user can rank the LEED scores by performing the steps listed in the LDRI tool. The tool will automatically provide the corresponding reports. | Currently, no weight is assigned to each factor. In the future, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) can be added to the model to determine the weight of factors. In addition, more factors should also be added to the tool to reflect the growing needs of owners and users. | ||
Elena et al. [146][59] | proposed an integrated approach for energy and environmental analysis, specifically for historic building renovation. | An intervention strategy indicating the principal direction of historic building operations and maintenance was proposed. | A weakness of the study is the lack of applicability to all LEED protocols, precisely because the structure of the credits and categories in O+M is substantially different from that in most rating systems. | ||||
In the study of Ricardo et al. [147][60], | the extent to which the integrated design can effectively improve project performance and reduce environmental impacts was verified. | The study was conducted on three Canadian building projects that were certified by LEED and in which various environmental strategies were integrated. The study team first identified and evaluated building environmental impact strategies, then analyzed the decision-making process and measured the relationship between reference buildings, schematic design and construction documents using the life cycle assessment (LCA) tool and building energy simulation (BES). | The study was only conducted on projects (gold and platinum) that were certified by LEED, and no analysis was conducted on other types of green building certified projects (e.g., SbTools, Living Building Challenge, BREEAM and DGNB). The impact of full life cycle assessment metrics on integrated processes was rarely mentioned. | ||||
In the study of Emre et al. [148][61], | a method of obtaining the required number of credits in the LEED (v4) category of “energy and atmosphere” under the “optimized energy performance” credit at the lowest cost was proposed. | The LEED v4 credits were calculated automatically based on Excel macros via the use of energy simulation software (Sefaira), cost database (RSMeans) and BIM software (Autodesk Revit) with an office building as example. | It was assumed in the study that the building’s lighting and HVAC systems had been determined by the analysts. In the future studies, changes in lighting and HVAC systems can be considered. Meanwhile, a large number of scenarios can be created to obtain the desired LEED scores. | ||||
In the study of Johnny et al. [149][62], | the Delphi method and case study method were adopted to explore the potential of BIM application in the project of sustainable certified residential buildings under BEAM Plus in Hong Kong. | In the study, an integrated BIM-BEAM Plus assessment framework was constructed and applied to a modular apartment model for public housing in Hong Kong. It was proved in the study that 26 BEAM Plus scores can be obtained via the integrated BIM-based assessment framework. | The validity of the framework needs to be further verified based on real case studies. The results generated by the framework need to be compared with the real BEAM Plus scores. | ||||
In the study of Bahriye et al. [150][63], | an integrated BIM sustainable data model framework was proposed based on integrated foundation classes (IFC) in the design stage of the whole building life cycle. | In the study, a green building assessment tool (GBAT) was established based on the IFC-BIM integrated framework. Then, it was applied to a sample project, and the accuracy of the tool was verified via the use of the BREEAM evaluation system. | |||||
Integrated simulation and iterative solutions | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | ||
User’s self-defined time step | Yes | No | No | Yes | No | ||
Output interface | Yes | No | No | No | No | ||
Self-defined output reports | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | ||
Calculation equation of room heat balance | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
Calculation equation of building’s heat balance | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | ||
Convective heat transfer calculation of internal surfaces | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | ||
Long-wave mutual radiation between inner surfaces | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | ||
Heat transfer model of neighboring chamber | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | ||
Humidity calculation | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | ||
Thermal comfort calculation | Yes | No | No | Yes | No | ||
Radiation model of sky background | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | ||
Calculation of window model | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | ||
Solar transmittance distribution model | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | ||
Daylight model | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | ||
Calculation of water cycle | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | ||
Circulation of air supply and air return | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | ||
User’s self-defined air conditioning equipment | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | ||
Calculation for the concentration of hazardous particulate matter | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | ||
Interface with other software | Yes | No | No | No | Yes |
Farzad et al. [139][52] | proposed a method of combining BIM with the Canadian green building certification system (LEED). | Based on the BIM platform, a model by which the LEED certification is automatically calculated is constructed. Meanwhile, the cost of the model can be calculated. | In this study, attention is only paid to the integration of BIM and sustainable development from the perspective of LEED. Therefore, the research results cannot go beyond LEED. The general framework of sustainable development is not produced. |
Farzad et al. [140][53] | put forward a comprehensive framework that integrates BIM with green building certification system in the early design stage of the project. | Plug-ins for the calculation of LEED points were developed by accessing the BIM application interface (API), tools for energy analysis and lighting simulation, Google Maps and its related libraries. | The accuracy of the model was restricted by the number of projects. The information transmission from Green Building Studio (GBS) to plug-ins needed to be performed manually by users. |
In the study of Liyin et al. [141] |