Saffron is the commercial name for the dried red stigmas of the Crocus sativus L. flower. It is appreciated for adding color, flavor, and a particular aroma to different food dishes or drinks (paella in Spain, Milanese risotto in Italy, lussekatter buns in Sweden, and alcoholic beverages). It is considered a high-priced condiment (1500–2200 euro/kg) due to the considerable labor involved in its production since it requires manual harvesting as well as a laborious handling process (sorting, drying, and storage). Saffron’s principal producers are Iran and Spain, whereas the leading importers are Spain, Hong Kong, and the United States. Saffron’s quality is essential for consumers in the food industry and is based on the concentration of its apocarotenoids and their respective sensory attributes: crocin’s coloring strength, picrocrocin’s bitter taste, and safranal’s aromatic intensity
Geographical Origin | Type of Extract | Compound | Concentration | Technique | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Azerbaijan | Methanol–water (50:50, v/v) | Trans-4-GG | 39.08 | mg/g | HPLC-PDA | [7] |
Trans-3-Gg | 27.25 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 7.49 | |||||
Σ crocins | 77.16 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 3.34 | |||||
Safranal | 0.98 | |||||
China | Methanol–water (50:50, v/v) | Trans-4-GG | 6.29 | mg/g | HPLC-PDA | [7] |
Trans-3Gg | 2.44 | |||||
Σ crocins | 8.73 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 0.53 | |||||
Safranal | 0.22 | |||||
Poitou, France | Methanol–water (50:50, v/v) | Trans-4-GG | 38.43 | mg/g | HPLC-PDA | [7] |
Trans-3-Gg | 27.74 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 5.89 | |||||
Σ crocins | 75.07 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 5.97 | |||||
Safranal | 0.81 | |||||
Greece | Methanol–water (50:50, v/v) | Trans-4-GG | 40.77 | mg/g | HPLC-PDA | [7] |
Trans-3-Gg | 30.36 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 10.14 | |||||
Σ crocins | 86.51 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 5.95 | |||||
Safranal | 1.29 | |||||
India | Methanol–water (50:50, v/v) | Trans-4-GG | 37.54 | mg/g | HPLC-PDA | [7] |
Trans-3-Gg | 22.13 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 9.12 | |||||
Σ crocins | 75.68 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 7.87 | |||||
Safranal | 0.47 | |||||
Fars, Iran | Aqueous extracts | Trans-4-GG | 56.16 | mg/g | HPLC-DAD | [75] |
Trans-3-Gg | 48.72 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 12.53 | |||||
Trans-2-gg | 12.49 | |||||
Σ crocins | 153.81 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 77.29 | |||||
Ghaen, Iran | Ethanol (70%) | Trans-4-GG | 197.84 | mg/g | HPLC-DAD-MS | [21] |
Trans-3-Gg | 71.56 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 26.88 | |||||
Trans-2-G | 24.86 | |||||
Σ crocins | 338.87 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 43.82 | |||||
Safranal | 1.35 | |||||
Gonabad, Iran | Ethanol (70%) | Trans-4-GG | 168.91 | mg/g | HPLC-DAD-MS | [21] |
Trans-3-Gg | 61.25 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 30.42 | |||||
Trans-2-G | 26 | |||||
Σ crocins | 302.51 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 36.97 | |||||
Safranal | 1.26 | |||||
Isfahan, Iran | Aqueous extracts | Picrocrocin | 150.64 | mg/g | HPLC-DAD | [75] |
Trans-4-GG | 46.86 | |||||
Trans-3-Gg | 43.51 | |||||
Trans-2-G | 14.53 | |||||
Trans-2-gg | 10.56 | |||||
Σ crocins | 137.05 | |||||
Safranal | 1.04 | |||||
Kerman, Iran | Aqueous extracts | Trans-4-GG | 77.89 | mg/g | HPLC-DAD | [75] |
Trans-3-Gg | 46.69 | |||||
Trans-2-G | 12.79 | |||||
Σ crocins | 159.86 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 63.95 | |||||
Safranal | 1.31 | |||||
Razavi Khorasan, Iran | Aqueous extracts | Trans-4-GG | 54.73 | mg/g | HPLC-DAD | [75] |
Trans-3-Gg | 34.51 | |||||
Trans-2-G | 9.35 | |||||
Σ crocins | 123.61 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 120.62 | |||||
Safranal | 2.13 | |||||
Tehran, Iran | Aqueous extracts | Trans-4-GG | 59.7 | mg/g | HPLC-DAD | [75] |
Trans-3-Gg | 44.43 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 12.39 | |||||
Trans-2-gg | 9.34 | |||||
Σ crocins | 146.66 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 131.61 | |||||
Safranal | 0.57 | |||||
Tehran, Iran | Aqueous extracts (1%) Freeze-Dried |
Picrocrocin | 33.88 | mmol/100g | HPLC-DAD | [76] |
HTCC | 20.2 | |||||
Trans-3-Gg | 3.81 | |||||
Trans-4-GG | 3.53 | |||||
Trans-2-gg | 1.17 | |||||
Σ crocins | 9.91 | |||||
Safranal | 0.84 | |||||
Tehran, Iran | Aqueous extracts (1%) Dark-Dried |
HTCC | 16.82 | mmol/100g | HPLC-DAD | [76] |
Picrocrocin | 15.14 | |||||
Trans-4-GG | 4.59 | |||||
Trans-3-Gg | 3.71 | |||||
Σ crocins | 11.95 | |||||
Safranal | 0.41 | |||||
Torbat, Iran | Ethanol (70%) | Trans-4-GG | 238.02 | mg/g | HPLC-DAD-MS | [21] |
Trans-3-Gg | 85.36 | |||||
Trans-2-G | 24.3 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 19.38 | |||||
Σ crocins | 388.23 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 67.95 | |||||
Safranal | 1.79 | |||||
Iran | Aqueous extracts | Trans-4-GG | 42.24 | % | HPLC | [27] |
Trans-3-Gg | 24.76 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 5.09 | |||||
Trans-2-G | 3.53 | |||||
Trans-2-gg | 3.18 | |||||
Σ crocins | 83.06 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 16.72 | |||||
Safranal | 0.22 | |||||
Iran | Methanol–water (50:50, v/v) | Trans-4-GG | 38.41 | mg/g | HPLC-PDA | [7] |
Trans-3-Gg | 23.58 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 4.73 | |||||
Σ crocins | 69.32 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 3.69 | |||||
Safranal | 0.65 | |||||
Iran | Ethanol 80% | Crocin | 26.81 | mg/0.1g | HPLC | [52] |
Picrocrocin | 12.92 | |||||
Safranal | 0.042 | |||||
Cascia, Italy | Ethanol (70%) | Trans-4-GG | 343.97 | mg/g | HPLC-DAD-MS | [21] |
Trans-3-Gg | 111.94 | |||||
Trans-2-G | 13.59 | |||||
Σ crocins | 494.42 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 127.83 | |||||
Safranal | 3.01 | |||||
Città della Pieve, Italy | Ethanol (70%) | Trans-4-GG | 302.65 | mg/g | HPLC-DAD-MS | [21] |
Trans-3-Gg | 109.17 | |||||
Trans-2-G | 16.12 | |||||
Σ crocins | 450.73 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 101.92 | |||||
Safranal | 2.41 | |||||
Fiesole, Italy | Ethanol (70%) | Trans-4-GG | 372.49 | mg/g | HPLC-DAD-MS | [21] |
Trans-3-Gg | 123.15 | |||||
Trans-2-G | 21.24 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 12.55 | |||||
Σ crocins | 548.84 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 130.35 | |||||
Safranal | 2.01 | |||||
Fiesole, Italy | Ethanol (70%)—formic acid | Trans-4-GG | 238.91 | mg/g | HPLC-DAD-MS | [64] |
Trans-3-Gg | 65.64 | |||||
Trans-2-G | 16.96 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 4.95 | |||||
Σ crocins | 342.02 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 111.14 | |||||
Safranal | 2.27 | |||||
Navelli, Italy | Methanol–water (50:50, v/v) | Trans-4-GG | 38.25 | mg/g | HPLC-PDA | [7] |
Trans-3-Gg | 28.28 | |||||
Σ crocins | 72.02 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 5.8 | |||||
Safranal | 0.53 | |||||
Perugia, Italy | Ethanol 70%—formic acid | Trans-4-GG | 148.5 | mg/g | HPLC-DAD-MS | [64] |
Trans-3-Gg | 46.2 | |||||
Trans-2-G | 14.8 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 14.1 | |||||
Σ crocins | 231.1 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 68.9 | |||||
Safranal | 2.6 | |||||
Italy | Aqueous extracts | Trans-4-GG | 43.57 | % | HPLC | [27] |
Trans-3-Gg | 23.09 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 5.29 | |||||
Trans-2-gg | 2.12 | |||||
Σ crocins | 78.45 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 21.26 | |||||
Safranal | 0.28 | |||||
Larache, Marruecos | Degassed methanol | Σ crocins | 17.9 | % | HPLC-DAD | [63] |
Picrocrocin | 11.92 | |||||
Safranal | 0.21 | |||||
Safranier d’Ourika, Marruecos | Degassed methanol | Σ crocins | 37.23 | % | HPLC-DAD | [63] |
Picrocrocin | 28.78 | |||||
Safranal | 0.24 | |||||
Rangiora, New Zealand | Methanol–water (50:50, v/v) | Trans-4-GG | 41.21 | mg/g | HPLC-PDA | [7] |
Trans-3-Gg | 31.26 | |||||
Σ crocins | 74.61 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 7.94 | |||||
Safranal | 0.47 | |||||
La Mancha, Spain | Methanol–water (50:50, v/v) | Trans-4-GG | 38.41 | mg/g | HPLC-PDA | [7] |
Trans-3-Gg | 24.43 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 5.76 | |||||
Σ crocins | 73.85 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 8.14 | |||||
Safranal | 0.88 | |||||
Turkey | Methanol–water (50:50, v/v) | Trans-4-GG | 36.35 | mg/g | HPLC-PDA | [7] |
Trans-3-Gg | 25.32 | |||||
Cis-4-GG | 5.21 | |||||
Σ crocins | 69.73 | |||||
Picrocrocin | 5.67 | |||||
Safranal | 0.84 |