Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi that infect a wide range of foods worldwide. Nivalenol (NIV), a type B trichothecene produced by numerous Fusarium species, has the ability to infect a variety of foods both in the field and during post-harvest handling and management. NIV is frequently found in cereal and cereal-based goods, and its strong cytotoxicity poses major concerns for both human and animal health.
Food Matrix | Country | Range (μg/kg) | Detection Technique | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Food | ||||
Adlay millet | South Korea | 12.6–337.6 | HPLC-UV | [58][51] |
Baby foods | Spain | 75–100 | HPLC-MS/MS | [59][52] |
Baby formula | South Korea | 4.4–1000 | HPLC-UV | [60][53] |
Barley | England | 10–1088 | GC/MS | [61][54] |
South Korea | 10.4–110.3 | HPLC-UV | [58][51] | |
Italy | 21.7–106 | LC-MS/MS | [62][55] | |
Spain | 12.47 | GC-MS | [63][56] | |
Baked snacks | Spain | 55.7 | GC-MS | [64][57] |
Barley grain | Poland | 5 | TLC and HPLC | [65][58] |
Barley and barley products | Germany | 0.87–19 | LC-MS/MS | [66][59] |
Beer | Czech Republic | 4–6 | UHPLC-APCI-Orbitrap MS | [67][60] |
Beer | Spain | 10–15 | UHPLC-APCI-Orbitrap MS | [68][61] |
Black bean paste (Chunjang) | South Korea | 83.8 | HPLC-UV | [58][51] |
Breakfast cereals | Spain | 51.1–106.5 | GC-MS | [64][57] |
Breakfast cereals | South Korea | 1096.8 | GC-MS | [69][62] |
Brown rice | South Korea | 47.4 | HPLC-UV | [58][51] |
Cereals | Finland | 185–300 | LC-MS/MS | [70][63] |
Cereals | Czech Republic | 50 | UHPLC-ESI-ToF-MS | [71][64] |
Cereal based products | Czech Republic | 25 | UHPLC-APCI-MS/MS | [72][65] |
Cereal based products | Switzerland | 100 | HPLC-ESI-MS/MS | [73][66] |
Cereals and cereal-based products | Spain | 121–176 | LC-MS/MS | [74][67] |
Corn | South Korea | 0–181.41 * | HPLC-PAD | [75][68] |
Corn | France | 7–340 | HPLC | [76][69] |
De-hulled and naked barley | Spain | 1.1–7.6 | LC-MS/MS | [66][59] |
Durum wheat | France | 60 | HPLC | [76][69] |
Durum wheat flour | Denmark | 83–440 | GC-ECD | [77][70] |
Flour bread | Italy | 5–8 | LC-MS/MS | [62][55] |
Foxtail millet | South Korea | 27.4–370.8 | HPLC-UV | [58][51] |
Ground wheat | Italy | 3.5–63.5 | LC-APCI-MS/MS | [78][71] |
Groundnut-maize based snacks | Nigeria | 1.8–2.5 | LC-MS/MS | [79][72] |
Grain-based product | Italy | 30 | GC-MS | [80][73] |
Groundnut | Nigeria | 1.0 | LC-MS/MS | [79][72] |
Malting barley | Spain | 35 | LC-MS/MS | [66][59] |
Maize | South Korea | 51.3 | HPLC-UV | [58][51] |
Nigeria | 0.8 | LC-MS/MS | [79][72] | |
China | 2.1–15.3 | UHPLC-MS/MS | [81][74] | |
Austria | 22.3–250 | LC-MS/MS | [82][75] | |
Spain | 6.4 | GC-MS/MS | [83][76] | |
Germany | 4.41–20 | GC | [84][77] | |
UK | 5–10 | HPLC | [85][78] | |
Poland | 2 | TLC and HPLC | [65][58] | |
Maize flour | Germany | 39 | GC-MS | [86][79] |
Maize-based breakfast cereal | Spain | 16–60.2 | GC-MS | [64][57] |
Multicereal Flour | Spain | 75 | LC-MS/MS | [87][80] |
Mixed paste | South Korea | 15.9–100.6 | HPLC-UV | [58][51] |
Mixed grains | South Korea | 88.9 | GC-MS | [69][62] |
Oats | South Korea | 23.5 | HPLC-UV | [58][51] |
Italy | 45.5–50.4 | LC-MS/MS | [62][55] | |
Germany | 17 | LC-MS/MS | [88][81] | |
Italy | 8–20 | LC-MS/MS | [89][82] | |
Austria | 100 | HPLC | [76][69] | |
England | 10–112 | GC/MS | [90][83] | |
Oats grain | Poland | 6 | TLC and HPLC | [65][58] |
Pearl barley | Spain | 0.18 | LC-MS/MS | [66][59] |
Popcorn | South Korea | 68.7 | HPLC-UV | [58][51] |
Red chili paste (Gochujang) | South Korea | 8.5–120.2 | HPLC-UV | [58][51] |
Rice | South Korea | 10 | HPLC | [91][84] |
Rice | Thailand | 0.50–15.00 | UHPLC-MS/MS | [92][85] |
Rice wine | South Korea | 2.5 | HPLC-UV | [60][53] |
Rye | Italy | 33.9–34.4 | LC-MS/MS | [62][55] |
Germany | 1.8 | LC-MS/MS | [88][81] | |
France | 2–48 | HPLC | [76][69] | |
Rye flour | Denmark | 38–48 | GC-ECD | [77][70] |
Rye grain | Poland | 5 | TLC and HPLC | [65][58] |
Sesame butter | China | 0.05–7.25 | UHPLC-MS/MS | [93][86] |
Semolina | Germany | 36 | GC-MS | [86][79] |
Wheat | Italy | 12–106 | LC-MS/MS | [62][55] |
Japan | 0.2 | HPLC-AAPI-MS/MS | [94][87] | |
Spain | 53.6 | GC-MS/MS | [83][76] | |
Germany | 33 | GC-MS | [95][88] | |
Poland | 10 | GC-GC-ToF-MS | [96][89] | |
Argentina | 0.11–0.40 | HPLC | [97][90] | |
England | 10–330 | GC/MS | [98][91] | |
Wheat flour | South Korea | 31.8 | GC-MS | [69][62] |
Denmark | 10–189 | GC-ECD | [77][70] | |
Spain | 30 | HPLC-ESI-MS/MS | [99][92] | |
Wheat semolina | Spain | 8.8–13.6 | GC-MS/MS | [100][93] |
Winter barley | Spain | 5.6–6.5 | LC-MS/MS | [66][59] |
Winter wheat | Italy | 70 | HPLC-MS/MS | [101][94] |
Spelt | Italy | 23 | LC-MS/MS | [62][55] |
Feed | ||||
Bran | South Korea | 11.1–36.9 | HPLC-UV | [91][84] |
Cattle feed | South Korea | 0–111.52 * | HPLC-PAD | [75][68] |
Chicken feed | South Korea | 0–101.23 * | HPLC-PAD | [75][68] |
Maize silages | Denmark | 122 | LC-MS/MS | [102][95] |
Pig feed | South Korea | 0–84.21 * | HPLC-PAD | [75][68] |
Wheat germ | Germany | 26 | GC-MS | [86][79] |
Wheat bran | Germany | 37 | GC-MS | [86][79] |