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Chromium Morpho-Phytotoxicity: Comparison
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Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Catherine Yang and Version 1 by Abdul Wakeel Umar.

Chromium (Cr) is considered as one of the chronic pollutants that cause damage to all living forms, including plants. Various industries release an excessive amount of Cr into the environment. The increasing accumulation of Cr in agricultural land causes a significant decrease in the yield and quality of economically important crops. The Cr-induced biochemical, molecule, cytotoxic, genotoxic, and hormonal impairments cause the inhibition of plant growth and development.

  • Chromium, Dichromate, Arabidopsis, Rice, Abiotic stress, Plant, Plant Physiology, Morph toxicity
  • Chromium
  • Dichromate
  • Arabidopsis
  • Rice
  • Abiotic stress
  • Plant
  • Plant Physiology
  • Morph toxicity

1. Introduction

Chromium (Cr) is considered one of the major carcinogens, and is categorized 7th among the top 20 hazardous pollutants by the Environmental Protection Agency, United States of America (EPA, US) [1,2,3][1][2][3]. Cr(VI) and Cr(III) are the most stable form of Cr in the environment. On the bases of bioavailability in soil and translocation to different plant parts, Cr(VI) is reported to be more toxic than Cr(III) [3,4,5][3][4][5]. The industrial process coupled with anthropogenic and natural processes have resulted in increased accumulation of Cr in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems [3,4,6][3][4][6]. Chromium in soil and water directly affects human, animal, and plant physiology, and may accumulate within food chains, which can be a serious health threat to the secondary (herbivores) and tertiary (carnivores and omnivores) consumers [3,7,8][3][7][8].

2. Chromium-Mediated Control of Seed Germination

The first phenotypic and physiological change mediated by Cr in plants is seed germination, which is very important for the continuity of the plant life cycle [21][9]. Endogenous and exogenous stimuli mediated genetic and epigenetic changes were reported to be involved in the regulation of seed germination, and plant biochemical, molecular and ultrastructural changes [21,22,23][9][10][11]. Chromium-induced inhibition of seed germination in various plant species have been reported, and the germination rate depends on Cr(VI) concentration and type of plant species as shown in (Table 1). Chromium stress affects the activities of both alpha and beta-amylase, which are the sources of energy provided to the emerging embryos. In summary, Cr reduces the activity of amylase, leading to the reduced sugar availability for energy production, and inhibits the rate of plant seed germination [24][12].
Table 1.
 Chromium-induced seed germination inhibition in various plant species.
Plant Species Common Name Chromium Concentration Medium Time of Exposure (Days) Seed Germination (%) References
Avena sativa Oat 500 mg/kg Cr(VI)

2000 mg/kg Cr(III)		 Soil 7 ≈82

≈95		 [25][13]
Beta vulgaris Swiss chard 50 µM Cr(III) Distilled water 12 71 [26][14]

3. Chromium-Induced Modulation of the Root Growth and Development

The plant root is the first organ that encounters soil pollutants, Cr is one of the most important soil pollutants, which affects root growth and development [14,23][11][21]. Chromium-induced reduction in the root growth mainly depends on the plant species, Cr-type and its concentration as shown in the (Table 2) Chromium is also involved in the regulations of secondary root growth and number, lateral root development, root hair, and formation of adventitious roots [20,24,33][12][22][23]. The reduced root length with a brownish appearance and reduced root hair number have been observed in Zea mays, exposed to high Cr(VI) levels [33][23]. The root growth inhibition mediated by Cr(VI), maybe due to the inhibition of cell division and reduction in the cell size of the elongation zone [14][21]. The reductions of mitotic cell division in Amaranthus viridis and Arabidopsis thaliana, have been reported, which is associated with the reduction in cell cycle-related genes and alterations in the cellular ultrastructure [3,14][3][21].
Table 2.
 Chromium-induced reduction in root growth as compared to control of various plant species.
Plant Species Common Name Chromium Concentration Medium Time of Exposure (Days) Root Growth (%) References
Arabidopsis thaliana Arabidopsis 200 µM Cr(VI) ½ MS 1 92.8 [14][21]
Avena sativa Oat 500 mg/kg Cr(VI)

2000 mg/kg Cr(III)		 Soil 7 ≈40

≈55		 [25][13]
Brassica juncea Mustard 300 µM Cr(VI) ½-strength Hoagland 3 80.8 [27][15]
15,16,17,19,47,49,50][3][29][30][31][33][34][35][36]. The degree of severity of these factors depends on the type of Cr and plant species [3]. The hyper heavy metal accumulator plants such as Brassica juncea and Alyssum maritime are were reported to be potentially more tolerant and can survive a range of high Cr concentrations [4,9][4][37].
Table 53.
 Chromium-meditated reduction in the total plant biomass as compared to control in various plant species.
Plant Species Common Name Chromium Concentration Medium Time of Exposure (Days) Total Biomass Production (%) References
Amaranthus viridis and Amaranthus cruentus Green and Blood Amaranth 50 μM ½-strength Hoagland 7 > 50 FW

≈80 FW		 [51][38]
Arabidopsis thaliana Arabidopsis
]
800 μM Cr(VI) ½-strength MS 2 50 FW

75 DW [15][29] Brassica campestris Cabbage 1 mg/L Cr(VI)
Brassica juncea Mustard 300 μM Cr(VI)½-strength Hoagland 21 ≈35 FW [ Semi-hydroponic medium34 5] 80–89 growth[24 [46][39] Brassica oleracea Cabbage 300 mg/kg Cr(VI) Distilled water 3 ≈65 Brassica juncea[28 Mustard] 300 µM Cr(VI)[ ½-strength Hoagland16]
Brassica juncea15 Mustard 100 µM Cr(VI) Soil 2043.7 [27][15]
> 50 FW and DW [52][40] Cajanus cajan Pigeon Pea 100 ppm Distilled water 3 93 Brassica napus Oilseed Rape 400 μM Cr(VI)[ Hoagland’s 6 ≈50
Brassica napus Oilseed Rape29] 400 μM Cr(VI)[17]
[35 Hoagland] 6[ 67 DW25]
[35][25] Cucumis sativus Cucumber Brassica oleracea Cabbage300 mg/kg Cr(VI) Distilled water 3 ≈96 300 mg/kg Cr(VI)[28][16]
Distilled water 3 ≈25
Brassica napus Rapeseed 500 μM Cr Soil 56 30.6 FW

28 DW		[28][16] Glycine max
[53][41] Soybean 200 mg/L Cr(VI) Hydroponic - 72.6 [30] Cajanus cajan[18]
Pigeon Pea 100 ppm Distilled water 10 32 [
Citrus reticulata Kinnow Mandarin 750 μM Cr(VI)29 Soil][ 12017]
63 DW [54][42] Lactuca sativa Lettuce 300 mg/kg Cr(VI) Distilled water Cucumis sativus3 ≈50 [28] Cucumber[16]
300 mg/kg Cr(VI) Distilled water 3 ≈15 [28][16]
Cyperus alternifolius and Coix lacryma-jobi Umbrella Palm and Adlay Millet 40 mg/L Cr(VI) Soil 120 77 DW

44 DW		 [55][43] Lactuca sativa Lettuce 50 µM Cr(III) Distilled water 12 94 [26] Lactuca sativa[ Lettuce
Hordeum vulgare300 mg/kg Cr(VI)14]
Distilled water 3 <10 Barley[28][16]
100 μM Cr(VI) Quartz sand 60 ≈23.7DW [56][44] Oryza sativa Rice 100 µM Cr(VI) Distilled water 4 ≈50 Oryza sativa[ Rice 80 µM Cr(VI)31 ¼ -strength Kimura B 7] 78[
Lemna minor19]
[36][26]
Duckweed 500 μM Cr(VI) SIS growth medium 7 60 [57][45] Sorghum bicolor Sorghum 500 mg/kg Cr(VI)

2000 mg/kg Cr(III)		 Soil 7 ≈60

≈10		 [25][13]
Sorghum bicolor Sorghum 500 mg/kg Cr(VI)

2000 mg/kg Cr(III)		 Soil 7 ≈10

≈30		 [25][13] [36][ Spinacia oleracea
Oryza sativa Rice 80 µM Cr(VI) Hydroponic 7 58 26] Spinach 50 µM Cr(III) Triticum aestivum
Parthenium hysterophorus Solanum nigrumWheat Santa Maria

500 µM Cr(VI)

10 mg/kg Cr(VI)

Distilled water Black Nightshade300 mg/kg Cr(VI)

500 mg/kg Cr(VI)

2000 mg/kg Cr(III)		 Sand 500 µM Cr(VI)

15		 Quartz sand

Distilled water

Soil		 Soil-

64		 7

3

7		 ≈57

≈20

< 10

≈10

≈45[		 2126 65.5 FW

64.DW][14]


110 FW

106 DW[37][27]

[38][28]

[28][16]

[25][13]		 [41][46] Triticum aestivum Wheat 100 ppm

300 mg/kg Cr(VI)

500 mg/kg Cr(VI)

2000 mg/kg Cr(III)		 Distilled water

Distilled water

Soil		 0.17

3

7		 63

≈90

≈70

≈25		 [32]
Zea mays Corn 300 mg/kg Cr(VI)

173 µM Cr(VI)		[ Distilled water

Hydroponic		20]

[28
Solanum melongena] 3

7[ ≈43%

≈70%16]

[		 [28][16]25][13]


[33][23] Zea mays Corn 300 mg/kg Cr(VI) Distilled water 3 ≈99 [28][16]

4. Chromium-Mediated Changes in Total Biomass Production in Plants

The biomass production is considered proportional to yield, which is greatly compromised in the plants exposed to Cr, indicating that Cr is reducing plant biomass as well as the yield of the important crops worldwide [15,19,47,48][29][30][31][32]. Numerous, species were investigated and reported to exhibit reduced biomass production under high Cr(VI) levels, and the toxicity varies based on the different plant species, and concentration and type of Cr(VI) used as shown in (Table 53). Several factors such as reduction/imbalance in the uptake/translocation of water and nutrients, cell division and division rate inhibition, selective inorganic nutrient uptake inefficiency, increased ROS accumulation, essential nutrient substitution from ligand and plant key molecules, and Cr-induced ROS mediated alteration and damages to plastids, pigment contents, mitochondria, lipids, RNA, and DNA are involved in the Cr-decreased growth, development, and yield in plants at molecular, cellular, tissue, and organ levels are involved in the alteration in the plant biomass production [3,
Eggplant
25 µM Cr(VI)
½-strength Hoagland
7
87 FW


83 DW
[48][32]
Triticum aestivum Wheat 500 µM Cr(VI) Sand

Quartz sand		 7 ≈65% [37][27]
Zea mays Corn 173 µM Cr(VI) Hydroponic 7 ≈85 FW [33][23]

This entry is adapted from 10.3390/plants9050564

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