Src non-receptor tyrosine kinase phosphorylates a variety of protein substrates that perform specific cellular functions. Activity of Src is regulated by a variety of stimuli and the Src protein is subjected to several types of post-translational modifications including lipidation, phosphorylation, acetylation, ubiquitylation, sumoylation and oxidation. In particular, p-Tyr416 Src has been known to be an active form while p-Tyr527 Src is an inactive form through autoinhibition by binding to Src SH2 own domain (Figure 1). Src also plays specific roles in specific compartments of the cell as Src is localized to the membrane, cytosol, mitochondria, and nucleus for specific functions ^[1][14]. Here, iswe discuss the regulation of Src activities concurrent with post-translational modification (Table 1).

Myristic acid is covalently linked to Gly2 instead of the Met initiator amino acid in Src. This myristoylation of Src is required for its membrane association, and cell transformation. Furthermore, the first 14 amino acids of Src contain a recognition sequence for its myristoylation ^[2][3][15,16]. Myristoylation is carried out by N-myristoyl transferase (NMT) by using myristoyl-CoA, with the consensus sequence for NMT protein substrate being Met-Gly-X-X-X-Ser/Thr. The initiating Met is cleaved by methionine amino peptidase and Gly2 becomes the N-terminal amino acid of the myristoylated Src ^[4][17].

Myristoylation stimulates Src activity by anchoring it to lipid membranes and the membrane binding also regulates Src ubiquitylation and degradation, as a nonmyristoylated Src has reduced activity, but it has enhanced stability. Src also has a hydrophobic pocket domain in the C-terminal region that binds to the myristoyl group. T456A mutation of Src leads to detachment from the lipid membrane, suggesting that Thr456 is localized to a binding pocket; this mutation also seems to promote to a nonmyristoylation state ^[5][18]. The N-terminal myristoylated SH4 domain of Src was recently reported to interact with its SH3 domain when Src is not anchored to a lipid membrane, and the residues in the domain termed the Unique lipid binding domain modulate this interaction ^[6][19]. For Src, in addition to its myristoyl group, six basic residues in the amino terminus (Myristoyl-GSSKSKPKDPSQRRR) are particularly essential for high affinity binding to the lipid bilayer via electrostatic interaction with acidic phospholipid, shown in vitro ^[7][20].

Other SFKs including Yes, Fyn, Lyn, Lck, Hck, Fgr, and Yrk harbor cysteine residue(s) in their N-terminal domain that can be covalently linked to palmitic acid by palmitoyl acyltransferase (PAT); this enzyme recognizes Met-Gly-Cys at the N-termini of these SFKs. However, Src does not contain this cysteine residue, and thus cannot be modified with palmitoylation ^[4][17].

Similar to most protein kinases, Src family kinases also require phosphorylation for regulation of their enzyme activity. Autophosphorylation of Src at Tyr416 (chicken; Tyr419 in human) ensures an active form ^[8][21]. In contrast, phosphorylation of Src at Tyr527 (chicken; Tyr530 in human) in the Src C-terminal domain inactivates the enzyme ^[9][22]. Tyr527 phosphorylation is carried out by C-terminal Src kinase (Csk) ^[10][23] and its homolog, Csk homologous kinase (Chk) ^[11][12][24,25]. Phosphorylation of the C-terminal Tyr527 of Src promotes binding of this phosphorylated residue to its own SH2 domain, resulting in an intramolecular auto-inhibitory Src structure ^[13][14][26,27]. Regarding the control of Src activity via Tyr527, receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase α (RPTPα) -/- mouse has impaired Src activity, manifested by a concomitant increase in phosphorylated Tyr527 forms of Src ^[15][16][28,29]. In addition, PDGF receptor, being a membrane tyrosine kinase, is able to phosphorylate Src at its Tyr213 residue near the binding pocket of SH2 domain, which then interferes with p-Tyr527 residue binding to the Src SH2 domain, leading to Src activation ^[17][30]. A detailed three-dimensional structure of Src with phosphorylations of Tyr416 and Tyr527 has also been described ^[18][31].

Src protein has several domains including SH1 (catalytic), SH2, SH3, SH4, and Unique domains. The Src Unique domain localized in the N-terminal region of the protein exhibits strong sequence divergence from the other SFK members. Recently, the Unique domain was reported to reveal a crucial role in regulation of Src activity. In particular, phosphorylation/dephosphorylation observed in the Unique domain of Src plays a critical regulatory function in Src kinase activity. There is also the unique lipid binding region (ULBR) that is a partially structured region within the Unique domain of Src ^[19][32].

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) activation of the cells causes Src to translocate from the plasma membrane to the cytosol and a 4-fold activation of its kinase activity and phosphorylation of its N-terminal region. Ser17 of Src was postulated to be a candidate phosphorylation residue, which likely changes the hydrophobicity of Src ^[20][33]. Ser17 of Src was demonstrated to be phosphorylated by protein kinase A (PKA) in PC12 cells. Src S17A, its dephosphorylated mimic, inhibits Rap1-dependent ERK activation by NGF and cAMP. In addition, neurite outgrowth from PC12 cells by cAMP is also inhibited by Src S17A, suggesting that Ser17 phosphorylation of Src is required for neurite outgrowth by cAMP ^[21][34]. In addition to Ser17 phosphorylation by PKA, Thr37 and Ser75 (human; Thr34 and Ser72 in chicken, respectively) and Ser46 (chicken; not found in human) of Src are phosphorylated by Cdk1/Cdc2 during mitosis. Phosphorylations of Thr34, Thr46, and Ser72 residues by p34Cdc2 either sensitize chicken Src to a Tyr527 phosphatase or desensitize Src to a Tyr527 kinase, leading to Src activation ^[22][35].

On serine and threonine phosphorylated residues, phosphorylation of Thr37 (human; Thr34 in chicken) and Ser75 (human; Ser72 in chicken) by p25-Cdk5 attenuates lipid binding by the ULBR. Phosphorylation of Ser17, Ser37 and Ser75 of Src gives rise to an electric static repulsion against negative charged lipids within membrane, leading to disruption of Src-membrane interaction ^[23][24][36,37].

CREB binding protein (CBP) acetylates the N-terminal lysine residues Lys5, Lys7 and Lys9 of Src to promote dissociation from the cell membrane. In addition, CBP also acetylates the C-terminal Lys401, Lys423, and Lys427 of Src to activate intrinsic kinase activity for STAT3 recruitment and activation, resulting in N-terminal domain phosphorylation (Tyr14, Tyr45, and Tyr68) of STAT3. These phosphorylations of STAT3 lead to formation of STAT3 dimer, an active transcription factor, which translocates to nucleus and then regulates transcription of specific genes there.

Loss of Csk reduces Src and the related SFK member, Fyn, protein levels. This is due to Csk stabilizing Src levels, along with inhibition of proteasome activity also increasing Src protein levels in Csk-deficient cells, pointing to protein degradation by a proteasome as the possible mechanism in this regulation. Tyr419-phosphorylated Src, an active form, can undergo Cullin-5-dependent ubiquitylation and activation of Src increases the extent of its polyubiquitylation ^[25][38]. Moreover, phosphorylation of Ser75 by Cdk5 promotes the ubiquitin-dependent degradation of Src ^[26][39]. Interestingly, ubiquitylated Src at Lys429 is crucial for Src secretion via extracellular vesicles. Mutation of Src at Lys429 also activates the tyrosine kinase FAK to potentiate Src-induced invasive phenotypes ^[27][40]. Ubiquitin ligase subunit, FBXL7, mediates the ubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation of active Src after phosphorylation of Src Ser104 residue. It should be noted that the promoter of FBXL7 is hypermethylated in advanced prostate and pancreatic cancers along with decreased mRNA and protein levels of FBXL7 ^[28][41].

Src can be SUMOylated at Lys318 in response to hydrogen peroxide. In contrast, hypoxia attenuates Src SUMOylation, along with an increase in Src Y419 phosphorylation. Ectopic expression of SUMO-defective mutant, Src K318R, promotes tumorigenesis. In addition, Src SUMOylation decreases Y925 phosphorylation of tyrosine kinase FAK residue, leading to reduced cell migration. Consequently, SUMOylation of Src at Lys318 negatively modulates its oncogenic function by at least partially inhibiting Src-FAK complex activity ^[29][42].

Intramolecular disulfide bridge formation between Cys245 and Cys487 upon exposure to ROS leads to Src activation ^[30][43]. In contrast, intermolecular disulfide bridges between the Cys277 residues of two different Src proteins result in inactive Src dimers ^[31][44]. Src family kinases localized to focal adhesion and the plasma membrane are rapidly and permanently inactivated by hydrogen peroxide. Surprisingly, the levels of cytoplasmic Src family kinases also gradually rise by hydrogen peroxide, in human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) ^[32][45]. All the post-translational modifications of Src are summarized in Figure 2.