The world is fast progressing toward a global agenda guided by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). According to a study conducted by M. Stafford-Smith et al. (2016), nations convened in September 2015 in New York for the United Nations 2015 (UN2015) to commit to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which must be achieved by 2030. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted by world leaders in New York at the United Nations. These 17 goals and 169 targets provide a strategy for all nations’ long-term development, focusing on economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental conservation. The focus has shifted away from agreeing on goals, and toward implementing and eventually attaining them. The world has concentrated rightly on achieving an integrated agenda through the SDGs, however inadequately accomplished in this initial iteration of such a transformative agenda ^[1]. By and large, fulfilling the SDGs’ targets would require a flexible and integrated global innovation system that actively connects regions throughout the world, connects research and society actors, and allows co-production, and transfer of locally relevant knowledge and technology. As a result, the endeavor has concentrated on integrating the substantive goals.

Renewable energy was available in rural areas in the form of wind farms, solar plants, biomass plants and others. In urban contexts, particularly with the use of solar energy technologies called solar energy systems in buildings, such as solar thermal and photovoltaic (PV). Some other studies by N. Sánchez-Pantoja, R. Vidal, and M. Carmen (2021) also highlighted in the early years, research into the utilization of solar energy in buildings was highly technical. The focus of attention was on optimizing the installation in terms of energy efficiency and economic costs. The challenge of establishing energy models was based only on renewable energy systems. Furthermore, programs focused on promoting the installation of renewable energies on an urban scale, as well as storage energy systems, are critical to effectively combating climate change, improving global energy performance in cities, and achieving more resilient cities. In this sense, terminology such as “sustainable communities,” “energy autonomy,” or “energy self-sufficiency” were already being used to talk about sustainable development as a whole, incorporating the technical, environment, social, economic and political challenges ^[2].

According to M.H. Shubbak’s (2019) research, the development of material components, production processes, and applications for both photovoltaic (PV) and Balance of System Technologies (BoS) is a significant research field in the modern day. The components of the BoS are critical for connecting, chemically protecting, and mechanically mounting the cells into panels, as well as electronically regulating their output levels for use, storage in batteries, or feeding into the utility grid. Additionally, the system incorporates testing and monitoring operations, as well as portable solar-powered gadgets ^[3]. Thus, whether centralized utility-scale or distributed, PV systems are composed of two distinct groupings of elements for solar cells and BoS, such as PV panels, electronics, and energy storage.

2. Environment and Health Barriers to Solar Energy Technologies

2.1. Climate Change

Research conducted by J. Nowotny et al. (2018), the production of energy has a significant impact on climate change. At the moment, the world community’s principal objective is to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. A related critical objective is to examine ways to create energy in an environmentally sustainable manner. The process of photosynthesis, which resulted in the removal of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere over hundreds of millions of years, culminated in the formation of carbon-rich fossil formations. Combustion of these deposits on a large scale releases unsustainable amounts of CO₂ into the atmosphere, resulting in an amplified greenhouse effect and eventual climate change, with the potential for catastrophic alterations to the planet’s ecosystems. The fundamental environmental risk is that human activity will pollute and contaminate water, air, and soil. If this occurs, people’s access to safe drinking water, clean air, and food will be endangered ^[4]. As a result, it is becoming increasingly evident that mitigating human-caused climate change through the use of solar energy is important to protect the ecosystem. Renewable energy technologies have the potential to make a significant contribution to global sustainable development by supplying clean energy, to address issues such as food insecurity, poverty, and climate change. According to A. Shahsavari et al. (2018), global climate policy’s primary strategies are greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction and climate change mitigation. Increased use of renewable energy sources is a critical component of achieving these goals. Solar energy technologies, such as solar photovoltaic (PV), hold enormous promise for reducing energy-related emissions and thus contributing to climate change mitigation. If global average temperatures continue to rise by more than two degrees Celsius per year, it is predicted that natural disasters will become more frequent, with hotter and longer droughts, agricultural failure, and mass extinctions ^[5]. In fact, climate change affects natural ecosystems as well as numerous human–environment systems. Moreover, J. Cronin (2018) analyzed that the climate change adaptation potential is discussed in a variety of ways. Climate change mitigation is highly dependent on a significant decarbonization of the energy system. Through long-term changes in climate parameters, variability, and extreme weather events, climate change has an effect on energy system components. As a result of climate change, cloud cover is anticipated to decrease in low-to-mid latitude regions. Importantly, climate change is projected to have a ripple impact throughout the energy sector ^[6]. M. A. Hannan et al. (2018) also point to how Malaysia is currently making a variety of steps as a signatory of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to adhere to the policy in order to address the challenges of reducing excessive reliance on fossil fuels, reducing carbon levels, and achieving sustainable national development. In Malaysia, climate change has an impact on our daily life and has the potential to reduce energy related environmental impacts, such as GHG emissions from energy usage per unit of GHG ^[7]. Besides, according to the Kuala Lumpur Climate Action Plan 2050 (2021), Kuala Lumpur City Hall (DBKL) is committed to making this Climate Action Plan a success, and it is confident in its implementation strategy to create a Kuala Lumpur that is climate resilient and carbon neutral for all by 2050 ^[8]. The development of the Kuala Lumpur Climate Action Plan 2050 (KLCAP2050) was undertaken to address and fulfil four main components as shown in Figure 1. Lastly, Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA) Malaysia discussed grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, as well as the design of GCPV systems that are appropriate for Malaysia’s regional climate. SEDA (2020) also discussed Malaysian grid connection requirements and standards, as well as PV inverter systems and related equipment that are suitable for Malaysian climate ^[9]. The training institutions located in Shah Alam, Selangor Malaysia at Selangor Human Resource Development Center (SHRDC) and Photovoltaic Monitoring Centre (PVMC), Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) are shown in Figure 2.

2.2. Greenhouse Gas (GHG) and Carbon Dioxide (CO

₂

) Emissions

The use of conventional fuels has resulted in a rapid increase in carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in the developing world, according to a study conducted by A. Shahsavari et al. (2018). Conventional energy generation is now the leading source of GHG emissions globally, particularly in developing countries, accounting for about 40 percent of global primary energy and approximately 40 percent of global electricity output. As a result, fossil fuel power plants emit massive amounts of harmful pollutants into the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrogen oxides (NO₂), and sulfur dioxide (SO₂). CO₂ emissions growth in developing economies is primarily due to a significant increase in the use of conventional fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, to meet rapidly growing energy demand ^[5]. Therefore, solar energy is the best solution to energy poverty, and it can provide excellent opportunities for reducing GHG emissions and indoor air pollution by replacing kerosene for lighting and firewood for cooking. Global demand for energy produced by fossil fuels is a significant factor in the upward trend in GHG emissions and air pollution. According to S. Diwania et al. (2020), the solar PV has the advantages of increased efficiency and pollution free energy. Thus, solar PV installed capacity is increasing on a daily basis around the world ^[10]. Besides, research conducted by M.A. Hannan et al. (2018) into Malaysia’s energy mix found natural gas and coal are the leading sources of GHG emissions, followed by hydropower. Oil reserves are depleting at an alarming rate, and it is no longer regarded a sustainable source of electricity generation. Malaysia is impacted by the hazardous emissions generated by fossil fuel combustion, which contributes to global warming. As a result, the use of fossil fuels is likely to contribute to the release of greenhouse gases (GHG) during their combustion, aggravating the climate change problem ^[7]. The majority of Ghana’s rural villages, solar-powered systems and solar PV have been found by a study of A.A. Adenle (2019) to mitigate the carbon footprint of kerosene lights and firewood. According to an examination of survey data, South Africa uses solar energy technologies to reduce carbon emissions at a higher rate than Ghana and Kenya. Indeed, solar energy is a cost-effective method of generating electricity from solar radiation that has a minimal carbon footprint and causes no harm to the environment ^[11]. According to the survey conducted by M.R.M. Cruz et al. (2018), the European Union (EU) has set a target of reducing GHG emissions by 80–95 percent by 2050 relative to 1990 levels. This is only achievable with the combination of “green” energy technologies, primarily wind and solar. Wind and solar energy, in particular, are expected to provide half of the electricity in the EU by 2050. The demand for more “carbon-free” energy resources is increasing dramatically ^[12]. According to the Kuala Lumpur Climate Action Plan 2050 (2021), Kuala Lumpur’s annual carbon footprint was estimated to be 25 million metric tons in 2017. Transportation accounted for the most emissions, accounting for 56 percent of total emissions in the city. The GHG Emissions Inventory is a critical tool for quantifying and estimating carbon emissions, as well as tracking, reporting and evaluating a city’s progress on climate action. An updated inventory can notify Kuala Lumpur City Hall (DBKL), Malaysia, about the extent to which climate change mitigation initiatives and actions have resulted in actual GHG reductions or their equivalent in carbon emission reductions over time ^[8]. Meanwhile, without significant action by DBKL, it is estimated that Kuala Lumpur’s carbon emissions will more than double to 2.3 times their 2017 levels by 2050, as presented in Figure 3.