Contribution of Opuntia species to ecosystem: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 3 by Camila Xu and Version 4 by Camila Xu.

Opuntia is an invasive flowering succulent plant species that grows up to 5 m tall and is a crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plant which belongs to the Cactaceae family.

  • invasive species
  • cactus
  • semiarid
  • nutritive value

1. Introduction

Opuntia is an invasive flowering succulent plant species that grows up to 5 m tall and is a crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plant which belongs to the Cactaceae family. This species is native to Mexico [1] and has spread through cultivation to many regions around the world, including South Africa (Figure 1), Ethiopia, Australia, Italy, Spain, Argentina, Chile and the Mediterranean basin (Table 1). Varieties of the Opuntia species are differentiated by various features such as the presence or absence of thorns, and the size of pear produced.
Figure 1. Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill in Limpopo Province, South Africa, Photos taken by K.E. Ravhuhali and O. Hawu.
Due to their adaptability to harsh conditions of less fertile soils, high temperatures and low rainfall, they are drought tolerant. Prickly pear is considered as a well- adapted species to hot temperatures in arid areas especially on low profile soils [2]. Due to its morphology, this plant is categorised as an extremely valuable source of nutrient feedstuff in areas where other species fail to survive due to extreme environmental conditions [3]. The biodiversity of Opuntia spp. is a very vital function when associated with arid and semi-arid plantations [4][5]. In past decades, studies have been conducted on a functional approach to characterize vegetation, rehabilitation programmes, biodiversity, and the adaptability of the invasive Opuntia spp. [5][6]. The importance of Opuntia spp. as a feed for ruminants has been noted globally especially in semi-arid areas where rainfall is erratic [7][8][9]. Opuntia spp. are known as profitable resources of both the arid and semi-arid areas around the world as they can be used as human food [10] and the mature cladodes can be used as an animal feed [11]. This inexpensive source of energy can decrease the use of conventional diets in many areas, and it is always ready during the dry season when there is a serious shortage of feeds [12][13], due to its high dry matter yield and its palatability [14]. Abay [8] also highlighted the importance of this species in sustainable agricultural systems in arid and semi-arid areas especially to those that do not have the means to access conventional feeds. Additionally, along with the foraging benefits, Opuntia has also been used in the restoration of degraded lands [15] and also for medical purposes [16].
Though the species can be used as forage, there are advantages and disadvantages of using Opuntia. Guevara et al. [17] reported that injuries are common to livestock feeding on this species due to the glochids of the areoles attached to the Opuntia spp. Usually this leads to a significant loss of livestock numbers in many semi-arid regions [18]. Furthermore, cultivation of the spineless Opuntia risks cross-pollination with spiny types leading to a spread of the invasive spiny species. The advantages of using Opuntia lies in a water use efficiency as influenced by the CAM photosynthetic pathway [19]. Moreover, this species is always available throughout the year for use in livestock diets. This rentryview focuses on highlighting the usefulness of Opuntia to animal diets. There is a need to understand the importance of this invasive Opuntia spp. when incorporated in animal diets as part of the biological control of invasive species. Information on its morphological parts, nutritive value, incorporating the species in animal diets and the means to control it must be well understood to recognise the species’ contribution to an ecosystem.
Although the Opuntia species variability is well known, the potential for the use of the invasive Opuntia spp. as fodder during drought years and dry seasons has not been extensively reviewed. Furthermore, there is no consensus on the level of invasiveness, which should be studied region by region by attributing a specific level of invasiveness (e.g., casual, invasive, naturalized) [20], and which offsets its value as fodder for livestock and human use. It is therefore important to review Opuntia’s current use and impact in animal production, and its nutritional attributes.
Table 1. Scientific, common name, origin and usefulness of prickly pear species.
Taxon Origin Use References
Opuntia leucotricha and O. rastrera Mexico Health benefits, domestic animal feedstuff, water supply, ornamental purposes [21][22][23][24][25][26]
Opuntia humifusa Canada Human consumption, fodder crop, prevent soil erosion, pharmaceutical (emergency hydration) [27][28][29]
Opuntia monacantha Spain, South America Human consumption and health and pharmaceutical benefits, chemical industrial uses [30][31][32][33]
Opuntia engelmannii south-central, south-western United States and northern Mexico Cultivated as an ornamental or as live hedge and the fruit is edible, health benefits [25][34][35]
Opuntia microdasys central and northern Mexico Animal feedstuff, pharmaceutical and health benefits, human consumption [36][37]
Opuntia megacantha North America and Mexico Health benefits and animal feedstuff, human consumption [38][39][40]
Opuntia stricta Australia, central America Health benefits and animal feedstuff, human consumption, living fences [18][33][41][42]
Opuntia cochenillifera South Africa Both traditional medicinal and edible purposes [43][44]
Opuntia ficus-indica Ethiopia Health benefits, animal feedstuff and fruits for humans [45]
Opuntia ficus-indica Ethiopia Health benefits, animal feedstuff and fruits for humans [45]
Opuntia ficus-indica Argentina and Mediterranean region Health benefits, animal feedstuff and fruits for humans [46][47]
Opuntia dillenii Italy Health benefits, animal feedstuff and fruits for humans [33]
Opuntia ficus-indica Chile Health benefits, animal feedstuff and fruits for humans [33]

2. Growing Conditions and Varieties of Prickly Pear

Climatic fluctuations have long been suggested as a key driving power of the diversification of the cacti family and their distribution [48]. The species of Opuntia is highly adaptive to any climatic conditions and soil and it is also resistant to drought [49]. It was reported that there is little information regarding the response of the invasive Opuntia species on climatic changes [50][51] and its effect on biodiversity. Since Opuntia spp. grow in arid and semi-arid environmental regions, a high proportion of the species is threatened by extinction as a result of overexploitation and land use change [52][53]. Conversely, under global warming, most environments are becoming more arid [53] such that Opuntia will inhabit areas that are not suitable, with climatic changes resulting in an expansion of the geographical collection of the species in the near future [53], alongside a reduction in rainfall and drop in carbon dioxide [54]. The diversification mechanism of Opuntia could be compounded with the availability of arid areas, and climatic changes are suspected of playing a significant role [55][56]. Prickly pear is a drought-resistant and sustainable feed source for livestock [53]. The variation in climatic conditions, water shortages and an increase in the human population require plants—which are of significant value to livestock and humans—to adapt to these factors for sustainable production. In semi-arid environments, plants for livestock would be from those species that can adapt and produce in severe hot and dry regions [9]. Genus’ such as Opuntia normally thrive in conditions of high temperatures, elevated levels of carbon dioxide, and low rainfall, and are characterised by increased cladodes productivity and extensive growth of their root systems [57]. On uncultivated lands, the dry matter (DM) yield from Opuntia can surpass 2000 kg ha−1 [58]. The DM content of different Opuntia spp. Is varied between 61 and 105 g kg−1 DM [12].

2.1. Temperature

Temperature is one of the determinants of natural plant distribution [59]. Different plants respond to temperature sensitivity differently with leaves being known as more sensitive than stems [60]; however, Nobel and Bobich [61] reported that the roots are more sensitive than stems. In South Africa, the Opuntia species are normally found in arid and semi-arid regions with high temperatures [9]. Drennan and Nobel [62] have also stated that the normal temperature for Opuntia species root growth is between 27–30 °C and some branches can be ruined by ambient temperature (−16 °C) depending on the type of species [63]. Opuntia plants can also survive in temperatures above 65 °C [64]. Nobel and De le Barrera [65] observed the tolerance of Opuntia at the age of 10 years and above to a low temperature of 2–6 °C, which normally prevents the plant from dying during freezing times. In a study conducted by Snyman et al. [66] in South Africa, it was highlighted that freezing temperatures during spring time did not result in the death of the Opuntia plant but rather had a negative impact on the plant moisture stress, and phonological stage. Water stress reduces irradiance on the physiological responses in basal mature cladodes [67]. Nobel [68] and Valdez-Cepeda et al. [63] found difficulties when assessing the strength of severe cold and frost on Opuntia in semi-arid areas, as there was little occurrence of cold and frost in those regions, whereas in other regions, low temperatures during winter periods become the major limiting factors in the cultivation of the species. High temperatures (above 30 °C) can decrease the photosynthetic process by up to 70% and low temperatures (lower than 0 °C) create irreversible damage to the cladode tissue. High temperatures (greater than 30 °C) during the day and greater than 20 °C during the night produce a higher number of new cladodes than fruits, which is ideal for fodder production [69].

2.2. Soil and Water

In order to have sustainable agriculture production, plant species which are salt tolerant and adapt well during drought are ideal for most arid and semi-arid regions [70]. Opuntia spp. adapt well in poor soils and some varieties adapt and survive in severely degraded soils with a limited or no nutrient supply [71]. Gajender et al. [70] highlighted that some Opuntia spp. are moderately tolerant to salt while being sensitive to alkaline conditions and that they can fail to adapt when the pH is more than 9. Apart from other nutrients, water is another limiting environmental parameter of plant growth [72] and several studies have reported the adaptability of Opuntia to water scarcity [73][74]. Opuntia is a drought tolerant species, which normally survives under moisture stress [75] and performs well in an area with limited water supply and under a rainfall range of 100–300 mm [76]. It uses a shallow and horizontally spread root system to access what little moisture is available [75]. The root adaptation of this species adds to the classical physiological and structural modification of CAM plants to tolerate severe drought periods [70][75][77]. Nobel [78] and Edvan et al. [79] indicated that this species’ adaptability to drought is also due to its ability to store water in its shoots and to fix CO2 during the night leading to reduced transpiration due to low night temperatures compared to the daytime. Edvan et al. [79] further stated that the species’ water use efficiency is six times greater than legume plants, and three times greater than herbaceous plants.

3. The Effect of the Invasive Opuntia Species on Biodiversity and Ecosystems

The researcheuthors correctly linked the effects of Opuntia on biodiversity, vegetation and an ecosystem [80][81] and there is information in the literature regarding the invasiveness of alien species and their impact on an environment [80][81], such as the utilisation of 7% of South African water resources to the detriment of native plants. Most of the Opuntia spp. in South Africa were sourced from the USA around 1914 [82]. This species now covers most areas around the world including Ethiopia and the Mediterranean Basin, France, Egypt, Greece, Italy, Libya, Turkey and South Africa [83][84], and it is regarded invasive by several countries such as Australia, Ethiopia, Mauritius, Yemen, the United states and Madagascar [85]. In line with the latest list of invasive plant species by the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act No 43 of 1983 in South Africa, this species was categorised in the category number 1b and is regarded as a weed, meaning it is not supposed to be planted [81][86]. The negative impact of this species is associated with a disturbance of natural vegetation through a reduction in grazing capacity and causing injuries to people and livestock [87]. Mokotjomela et al. [88] indicated that birds are some of the animals that spread the cacti seeds in the arid areas of South Africa. Jones et al. [89] and Shackleton et al. [41] highlighted that the Opuntia species are regarded as an engineer of ecosystems due to its ability to modify the indigenous plant species habitats and also because it prevents livestock movement as it forms a thicket. Shackleton et al. [41], Pyšek et al. [90] and Seebens et al. [91] stressed that the introduction of many Opuntia around the world resulted in them becoming major invaders which have social and ecological costs. This is in agreement with Githae [92] and Tesfay and Kreyling [93], who found a significant homogenisation of the plant species composition and richness, and a poor rangeland condition leading to land degradation as influenced by the presence of Opuntia ficus-indica, and this leads to some plant species suffering because of its presence.

References

  1. Inglese, P.; Basile, F.; Schirra, M. Cactus pear fruit production. In Cacti: Biology and Uses; University of California Press: Berkeley, CA, USA, 2002; pp. 163–179.
  2. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). Agro-Industrial Utilization of Cactus Pear; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2013.
  3. Vastolo, A.; Calabrò, S.; Cutrignelli, M.I.; Raso, G.; Todaro, M. Silage of Prickly Pears (Opuntia spp.) juice by-products. Animals 2020, 10, 1716.
  4. Amghar, F.; Forey, E.; Richard, B.; Touzard, B.; Laddada, S.; Brouri, L.; Langlois, E.; Margerie, P. Old nurses always die: Impacts of nurse age on local plant richness. Plant Ecol. 2016, 217, 407–419.
  5. Neffar, S.; Menasria, T.; Chenchouni, H. Diversity and functional traits of spontaneous plant species in Algerian rangelands rehabilitated with prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica L.) plantations. Turk. J. Bot. 2018, 42, 448–461.
  6. Chenchouni, H.; Benabderrahmane, M.C.; Arar, A. Modeling and mapping desertification risk in eastern Algeria with geomatic data. In Proceedings of the IECHAR Conference, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia, 1–2 March 2010; pp. 213–217.
  7. Rodrigues, A.M.; Pitacas, F.I.; Reis, C.M.; Blasco, M. Nutritional value of Opuntia ficus-indica cladodes from Portuguese ecotypes. Bulg. J. Agric. Sci. 2016, 22, 40–45.
  8. Abay, N.G. Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica): Current utilization and future threats as cattle forage in Raya Azebo, Ethiopia. Environ. Manag. Sustain. Dev. 2018, 7, 1–3.
  9. Matlabe, G. Evaluation of Fermentation Characteristics of Opuntia Cladodes Legume Silage Mixture and Its Influence on Growth Performance of Mutton-Merino Wethers. Ph.D. Thesis, North-West University, Mafikeng, South Africa, 2020.
  10. Einkamerer, O.B.; De Waal, H.O.; Combrinck, W.J.; Fair, M.D. Feed utilization and growth of Dorper wethers on Opuntia-based diets. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 2009, 39, 53–57.
  11. Combrinck, W.J.; Zeeman, D.C.; De Waal, H.O. Wet faeces produced by sheep fed dried spineless cactus pear cladodes in balanced diets. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 2006, 36, 10–13.
  12. Mokoboki, H.K.; Sebola, N.A. Chemical composition and feed intake of Opuntia cladodes varieties offered to goats. J. Anim. Plant Sci. 2017, 32, 5096–5103.
  13. Cruz, A.A.; Véras, A.S.; Oliveira, J.C.; Santos, D.C.; Chagas, J.C.; Neves, M.L.; Monteiro, C.C.; Ferreira, M.D. Sugarcane and cactus cladodes plus urea: A new option for Girolando dairy heifers. Rev. Bras. Zootec. 2020, 49, 20200016.
  14. Batista, A.M.; Mustafa, A.F.; McAllister, T.; Wang, Y.; Soita, H.; McKinnon, J.J. Effects of variety on chemical composition, in situ nutrient disappearance and in vitro gas production of spineless cacti. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2003, 83, 440–455.
  15. Neffar, S.; Chenchouni, H.; Beddiar, A.; Redjel, N. Rehabilitation of degraded rangeland in drylands by prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica L.) plantations: Effect on soil and spontaneous vegetation. Ecol. Balk. 2013, 5, 63–76.
  16. Maruca, G.; Spampinato, G.; Turiano, D.; Laghetti, G.; Musarella, C.M. Ethnobotanical notes about medicinal and useful plants of the Reventino Massif tradition (Calabria region, Southern Italy). Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 2019, 66, 1027–1040.
  17. Guevara, J.C.; Suassuna, P.; Felker, P. Opuntia forage production systems: Status and prospects for rangeland application. Rangel. Ecol. Manag. 2009, 62, 428–434.
  18. Witt, A.B.R.R.; Kiambi, S.; Beale, T.; Van Wilgen, B.W. A preliminary assessment of the extent and potential impacts of alien plant invasions in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem, East Africa. Koedoe 2017, 59, 1–16.
  19. Han, H.; Felker, P. Field validation of water-use efficiency of the CAM plant Opuntia ellisianain south Texas. J. Arid Environ. 1997, 36, 133–148.
  20. Stinca, A.; Musarella, C.M.; Rosati, L.; Laface, V.L.A.; Licht, W.; Fanfarillo, E. Italian Vascular Flora: New Findings, Updates and Exploration of Floristic Similarities between Regions. Diversity 2021, 13, 600.
  21. Hardesty, B.D.; Hughes, S.L.; Rodriguez, V.M.; Hawkins, J.A. Characterization of microsatellite loci for the endangered cactus Echinocactus grusonii, and their cross-species utilization. Mol. Ecol. Resour. 2008, 8, 164–167.
  22. Verloove, F. New xenophytes from Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain), with emphasis on naturalized and (potentially) invasive species. Collect. Bot. 2013, 32, 59–82.
  23. Kamble, S.M.; Debaje, P.P.; Ranveer, R.C.; Sahoo, A. Nutritional importance of cactus: A review. Trends Biosci. 2017, 10, 7668–7677.
  24. Lee, S.Y.; Bae, C.S.; Choi, Y.H.; Seo, N.S.; Na, C.S.; Yoo, J.C.; Cho, S.S.; Park, D.H. Opuntia humifusa Modulates Morphological Changes Characteristic of Asthma via IL-4 and IL-13 in an Asthma Murine Model. Food Nutr. Res. 2017, 61, 1393307.
  25. Gonzalez-Cortes, A.; Reyes-Valdes, M.; Robledo-Torres, V.; Villarreal-Quintanilla, J.A.; Ramírez-Godina, F. Pre-germination treatments in four prickly pear cactus (Opuntia sp.) species from Northeastern Mexico. Aust. J. Crop Sci. 2018, 12, 1676–1684.
  26. Fuentes, R.J.; Charles, R.A.; Ruiz, Z.F.; Garcia, E.R.; Lopez, T.R.; Aguilera, J.I. Nutrient composition and in-vitro digestibility of cactus pear cladodes (Opuntia rastrera) at different localities of northeast Mexico. Acta Hortic. 2019, 1247, 91–94.
  27. Drezner, T.D. Shade, reproductive effort and growth of the endangered native cactus, Opuntia humifusa Raf. in Point Pelee National Park, Canada1. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 2017, 144, 179–190.
  28. Quines-Lagmay, V.C.; Jeong, B.G.; Kerr, W.L.; Choi, S.G.; Chun, J. Antioxidative properties of eastern prickly pear (Opuntia humifusa) fermented with lactic acid bacteria and cell wall-hydrolyzing enzymes. Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 122, 109029.
  29. Park, S.H.; Jeong, B.G.; Song, W.; Jung, J.; Chun, J. Enhancement of functional and sensory properties of eastern prickly pear (Opuntia humifusa) by fermentation with yuza peel and guava leaf. Food Biosci. 2021, 41, 100921.
  30. Zhao, M.; Yang, N.; Yang, B.; Jiang, Y.; Zhang, G. Structural characterization of water-soluble polysaccharides from Opuntia monacantha cladodes in relation to their anti-glycated activities. Food Chem. 2007, 105, 1480–1486.
  31. Valente, L.M.; da Paixão, D.; Do Nascimento, A.C.; dos Santos, P.F.; Scheinvar, L.A.; Moura, M.R.; Tinoco, L.W.; Gomes, L.N.; da Silva, J.F. Antiradical activity, nutritional potential and flavonoids of the cladodes of Opuntia monacantha (Cactaceae). Food Chem. 2010, 123, 1127–1131.
  32. Osuna-Martínez, U.; Reyes-Esparza, J.; Rodríguez-Fragoso, L. Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica): A review on its antioxidants properties and potential pharmacological use in chronic diseases. Nat. Prod. Chem. Res. 2014, 2, 1–8.
  33. Novoa, A.; Le Roux, J.J.; Robertson, M.P.; Wilson, J.R.; Richardson, D.M. Introduced and invasive cactus species: A global review. AoB Plants 2015, 7, plu078.
  34. Melgar, B.; Pereira, E.; Oliveira, M.B.; Garcia-Castello, E.M.; Rodriguez-Lopez, A.D.; Sokovic, M.; Barros, L.; Ferreira, I.C. Extensive profiling of three varieties of Opuntia spp. fruit for innovative food ingredients. Food Res. Int. 2017, 101, 259–265.
  35. Bagrikova, N.A.; Chichkanova, E.S. About some morphological and morphometric features of Opuntia engelmannii subsp. lindheimeri (Cactaceae), naturalised in the “Cape Martyan” Nature Reserve (Crimea). Nat. Conserv. Res. 2018, 3, 54–65.
  36. Chahdoura, H.; Adouni, K.; Khlifi, A.; Dridi, I.; Haouas, Z.; Neffati, F.; Flamini, G.; Mosbah, H.; Achour, L. Hepatoprotective effect of Opuntia microdasys (Lehm.) Pfeiff flowers against diabetes type II induced in rats. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2017, 94, 79–87.
  37. Chahdoura, H.; Khlifi, A.; Lamine, J.B.; Ziani, B.E.; Adouni, K.; El Bok, S.; Haouas, Z.; Neffati, F.; Zakhama, A.; Flamini, G.; et al. Protective potential of Opuntia microdasys flower decoction on fructose-alloxan-induced diabetic rats on kidney and pancreas: Chemical and immunohistochemical analyses. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2018, 25, 33645–33655.
  38. Sibiya, N.; Ngubane, P.; Mabandla, M. The ameliorative effect of pectin-insulin patch on renal injury in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Kidney Blood Press Res. 2017, 42, 530–540.
  39. Stinca, A.; Ravo, M.; Giacanelli, V.; Conti, F. Additions to the vascular flora of the islands of Procida and Vivara (Campania, southern Italy). Atti Della Soc. Toscana Di Sci. Nat. Resid. Pisa Mem. Ser. B 2018, 125, 87–93.
  40. Bouhrim, M.; Ouassou, H.; Loukili, E.H.; Ramdani, M.; Mekhfi, H.; Ziyyat, A.; Legssyer, A.; Aziz, M.; Bnouham, M. Antidiabetic effect of Opuntia dillenii seed oil on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2019, 27, 381–388.
  41. Shackleton, R.T.; Witt, A.B.; Piroris, F.M.; van Wilgen, B.W. Distribution and socio-ecological impacts of the invasive alien cactus Opuntia stricta in eastern Africa. Biol. Invasions 2017, 19, 2427–2441.
  42. Izuegbuna, O.; Otunola, G.; Bradley, G. Chemical composition, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic activities of Opuntia stricta cladodes. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, 0209682.
  43. Monrroy, M.; García, E.; Ríos, K.; García, J.R. Extraction and Physicochemical Characterization of Mucilage from Opuntia cochenillifera (L.) Miller. J. Chem. 2017, 2017, 4301901.
  44. da Cruz Filho, I.J.; da Silva Barros, B.R.; de Souza Aguiar, L.M.; Navarro, C.D.; Ruas, J.S.; de Lorena, V.M.; de Moraes Rocha, G.J.; Vercesi, A.E.; de Melo, C.M.; Maior, A.M. Lignins isolated from Prickly pear cladodes of the species Opuntia fícus-indica (Linnaeus) Miller and Opuntia cochenillifera (Linnaeus) Miller induces mice splenocytes activation, proliferation and cytokines production. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 123, 1331–1339.
  45. Belay, T.; Gebreselassie, M.; Abadi, T. Description of Cactus Pear (Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.) Cultivars from Tigray, Northern Ethiopia; Research Report 1; Tigray Agricultural Research Institute: Mekelle, Ethiopia, 2011.
  46. Gurvich, D.E.; Zeballos, S.R.; Demaio, P.H. Diversity and composition of cactus species along an altitudinal gradient in the Sierras del Norte Mountains (Córdoba, Argentina). S. Afr. J. Bot. 2014, 93, 142–147.
  47. Erre, P.; Chessa, I.; Nieddu, G.; Jones, P.G. Diversity and spatial distribution of Opuntia spp. in the Mediterranean Basin. J. Arid Environ. 2009, 73, 1058–1066.
  48. Nyman, T.; Linder, H.P.; Peña, C.; Malm, T.; Wahlberg, N. Climate-driven diversity dynamics in plants and plant-feeding insects. Ecol. Lett. 2012, 15, 889–898.
  49. Homer, I.; Varnero, M.T.; Bedregal, C. Nopal (Opuntia ficus-indica) energetic potential cultivated in arid and semi-arid zones of Chile: An assessment. IDESIA 2020, 38, 119–127.
  50. Pérez-Sánchez, R.M.; Jurado, E.; Chapa-Vargas, L.; Flores, J. Seed germination of Southern Chihuahuan Desert plants in response to elevated temperatures. J. Arid Environ. 2011, 75, 978–980.
  51. Aragón-Gastélum, J.L.; Flores, J.; Yanez-Espinosa, L.; Badano, E.; Ramirez-Tobias, H.M.; Rodas-Ortíz, J.P.; Gonzalez-Salvatierra, C. Induced climate change impairs photosynthetic performance in Echinocactus platyacanthus, an especially protected Mexican cactus species. Flora 2014, 209, 499–503.
  52. Goettsch, B.; Hilton-Taylor, C.; Cruz-Piñón, G.; Duffy, J.P.; Frances, A.; Hernández, H.M.; Inger, R.; Pollock, C.; Schipper, J.; Superina, M.; et al. High proportion of cactus species threatened with extinction. Nat. Plants 2015, 1, 15142.
  53. Gorostiague, P.; Sajama, J.; Ortega-Baes, P. Will climate change cause spatial mismatch between plants and their pollinators? A test using Andean cactus species. Biol. Conserv. 2018, 226, 247–255.
  54. Arakaki, M.; Christin, P.A.; Nyffeler, R.; Lendel, A.; Eggli, U.; Ogburn, R.M.; Spriggs, E.; Moore, M.J.; Edwards, E.J. Contemporaneous and recent radiations of the world’s major succulent plant lineages. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 8379–8384.
  55. Hernández-Hernández, T.; Brown, J.W.; Schlumpberger, B.O.; Eguiarte, L.E.; Magallón, S. Beyond aridification: Multiple explanations for the elevated diversification of cacti in the New World Succulent Biome. New Phytol. 2014, 202, 1382–1397.
  56. Silva, G.A.R.; Antonelli, A.; Lendel, A.; Moraes, E.D.M.; Manfrin, M.H. The impact of early Quaternary climate change on the diversification and population dynamics of a South American cactus species. J. Biogeogr. 2018, 45, 76–88.
  57. du Toit, A.; de Wit, M.; Fouché, H.J.; Venter, S.L.; Hugo, A. Relationship between weather conditions and the physicochemical characteristics of cladodes and mucilage from two cactus pear species. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, 0237517.
  58. Mueller, D.M.; Shoop, M.C.; Laycock, W.A. Mechanical harvesting of plains prickly pear for control and feeding. J. Range Manag. Arch. 1994, 47, 251–254.
  59. Fitter, A.H.; Hay, R.K.M. Environmental Physiology of Plants, 3rd ed.; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2002.
  60. Beck, E. Cold tolerance in tropical alpine plants. In Tropical Alpine Environments. Plant Form and Function; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK; London, UK, 1994; pp. 77–110.
  61. Nobel, P.S.; Bobich, E.G. Environmental biology. In Cacti, Biology and Uses; Nobel, P.S., Ed.; University of California Press: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2002; pp. 7–74.
  62. Drennan, P.M.; Nobel, P.S. Root growth dependence on soil temperature for Opuntia ficus-indica: Influences of air temperature and a doubled CO2 concentration. Funct. Ecol. 1998, 12, 959–964.
  63. Valdez-Cepeda, R.D.; Blanco-Macías, F.; Salinas-García, G.; Vázquez-Alvarado, R.; Gallegos-Vázquez, C. Freezing tolerance of Opuntia spp. Acta Hortic. 2002, 581, 177–183.
  64. Nobel, P.S. Environmental Biology of Agaves and Cacti; Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA; London, UK, 1988; p. 270.
  65. Nobel, P.S.; De la Barrera, E. Tolerances and acclimation to low and high temperatures for cladodes, fruits and roots of a widely cultivated cactus, Opuntia ficus-indica. New Phytol. 2003, 157, 271–279.
  66. Snyman, H.A.; Fouché, H.J.; Avenant, P.L.; Ratsele, C. Frost Sensitivity of Opuntia ficus-indica and O. robusta in a Semiarid Climate of South Africa. J. Prof. Assoc. Cactus Dev. 2007, 9, 1–21.
  67. Zañudo-Hernández, J.; del Castillo Aranda, E.G.; Ramírez-Hernández, B.C.; Pimienta-Barrios, E.; Castillo-Cruz, I.; Pimienta-Barrios, E. Ecophysiological responses of Opuntia to water stress under various semi–arid environments. J. Prof. Assoc. Cactus Dev. 2010, 12, 20–36.
  68. Nobel, P.S. Ecophysiology of Opuntia ficus-indica. In Cactus (Opuntia spp.) as Forage. FAO Plant Protection and Production Paper 169. 146; Mondragòn-Jacobo, C., PérezGonzález, S., Eds.; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2001; pp. 13–19.
  69. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). Crop Ecology, Cultivation and Uses of Cactus Pear. IX International Congress on Cactus Pear and Cochineal; FAO: Coquimbo, Chile, 2010.
  70. Gajender, G.; Gurbachan, S.; Dagar, J.C.; Khajanchi, L.; Yadav, R.K. Performance of edible cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) in saline environments. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 2014, 84, 509–513.
  71. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). Cactus (Opuntia ssp.) as Forage. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper No. 169; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2001.
  72. Snyman, H.A. Effect of various water application strategies on root development of Opuntia ficus-indica and O. robusta under greenhouse growth conditions. J. Prof. Assoc. Cactus Dev. 2004, 6, 35–61.
  73. Pimienta-Barrios, E.; del Castillo-Aranda, M.E.; Nobel, P.S. Ecophysiology of a wild platyopuntia exposed to prolonged drought. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2002, 47, 77–86.
  74. Quintanar-Orozco, E.T.; Vázquez-Rodríguez, G.A.; Beltrán-Hernández, R.I.; Lucho-Constantino, C.A.; Coronel-Olivares, C.; Montiel, S.G.; Islas-Valdez, S. Enhancement of the biogas and biofertilizer production from Opuntia heliabravoana Scheinvar. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2018, 25, 28403–28412.
  75. Snyman, H.A. Root distribution with changes in distance and depth of two-year-old cactus pears Opuntia ficus-indica and O. robusta plants. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2006, 72, 434–441.
  76. Inglese, P.; Liguori, G.; De La Barrera, E. Ecophysiology and Reproductive Biology of Cultivated Cacti. Crop Ecology, Cultivation and Uses of Cactus Pear Crop Ecology, Cultivation; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas: Rome, Italy, 2017; pp. 43–50.
  77. Nobel, P.S. Environmental biology. In Agro-Ecology, Cultivation and Uses of Cactus Pear; Barbera, G., Inglese, P., Pimienta-Barrios, E., Eds.; FAO: Rome, Italy, 1995; pp. 36–48, 213, FAO Plant production and protection paper No. 132.
  78. Nobel, P.S. Remarkable Agaves and Cacti; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA; Oxford, UK, 1994.
  79. Edvan, R.L.; Mota, R.R.; Dias-Silva, T.P.; do Nascimento, R.R.; de Sousa, S.V.; da Silva, A.L.; de Araújo, M.J.; Araújo, J.S. Resilience of cactus pear genotypes in a tropical semi-arid region subject to climatic cultivation restriction. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 10040.
  80. Mooney, H.A. Invasive alien species: The nature of the problem. In Invasive Alien Species, a New Synthesis; Mooney, H.A., Ed.; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2005.
  81. Shackleton, S.; Kirby, D.; Gambiza, J. Invasive plants–friends or foes? Contribution of prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) to livelihoods in Makana Municipality, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Dev. S. Afr. 2011, 28, 177–193.
  82. Du Toit, A.; De Wit, M.; Osthoff, G.; Hugo, A. Antioxidant properties of fresh and processed cactus pear cladodes from selected Opuntia ficus-indica and O. robusta cultivars. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2018, 118, 44–51.
  83. Blondel, J.; Medail, F. Biodiversity and conservation. In The Physical Geography of the Mediterranean; Woodward, J.C., Ed.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2009; pp. 615–650.
  84. Novoa, A.; Flepu, V.; Boatwright, J.S. Is spinelessness a stable character in cactus pear cultivars? Implications for invasiveness. J. Arid Environ. 2019, 160, 11–16.
  85. Zimmermann, H.G.; Perez-Sandi y Cuen, M. Prickly pear, the other face of cactus pear. Acta Hortic. 2004, 728, 289–296.
  86. Beinart, W.; Wotshela, L. Prickly Pear. The Social History of a Plant in the Eastern Cape, South Africa; University of the Witwatersrand Press: Johannesburg, South Africa, 2013.
  87. Walters, M.; Figueiredo, E.; Crouch, N.R.; Winter, P.J.D.; Smith, G.F.; Zimmermann, H.G.; Mashope, B.K. Abc Taxa. Naturalised and Invasive Succulents of Southern Africa; Belgium Development Corporation: Brussels, Belgium, 2011; Volume 11.
  88. Mokotjomela, T.M.; Thabethe, V.; Downs, C. Comparing germination metrics of Opuntia ficus-indica and O. robusta between two sets of bird species (Pied Crows and two smaller species). Acta Oecol. 2020, 110, 103676.
  89. Jones, C.G.; Lawton, J.H.; Shachak, M. Organisms as ecosystem engineers. Oikos 1994, 69, 373–386.
  90. Pyšek, P.; Hulme, P.E.; Simberloff, D.; Bacher, S.; Blackburn, T.M.; Carlton, J.T.; Dawson, W.; Essl, F.; Foxcroft, L.C.; Genovesi, P.; et al. Scientists’ warning on invasive alien species. Biol. Rev. 2020, 95, 1511–1534.
  91. Seebens, H.; Blackburn, T.M.; Hulme, P.E.; van Kleunen, M.; Liebhold, A.M.; Orlova-Bienkowskaja, M.; Pyšek, P.; Schindler, S.; Essl, F. Around the world in 500 years: Inter-regional spread of alien species over recent centuries. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 2021, 30, 1621–1632.
  92. Githae, E.W. Status of Opuntia invasions in the arid and semi-arid lands of Kenya. CAB Rev. 2018, 13, 1–7.
  93. Tesfay, Y.B.; Kreyling, J. The invasive Opuntia ficus-indica homogenizes native plant species compositions in the highlands of Eritrea. Biol. Invasions 2021, 23, 433–442.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Video Production Service
Feedback