Chronic Kidney Disease, Periodontitis, Red Complex Bacteria, TNF-α: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Camila Xu and Version 1 by Shankargouda Patil.

Periodontitis, referred to as gum disease, is a serious bacterial infection that damages the surrounding structures of the teeth, including the supporting bones, lastly without prompt treatment resulting in tooth loss.

  • creatinine
  • cytokines
  • ELISA
  • inflammatory mediators
  • inflammation

1. Introduction

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) affects the quality of life of affected individuals. It can easily progress to advanced stages, thereby leading to greater morbidity and mortality rates. CKD is more prevalent in Asian populations in comparison with other ethnic groups. [1]. The disease affects 8% to 13% of the total global population [2]. The principal aetiology of mortality in individuals suffering from CKD is the severity of the condition with increased inflammation that leads to cardiac complications [3].
Periodontitis, on the other hand, is an inflammatory condition caused by Gram-negative bacteria associated with both local and systemic immune responses that lead to the destruction of the periodontium [4]. Periodontal disease results from a plethora of mechanisms associated with the cross-link between host factors and microbes [5,6][5][6]. Periodontitis on progression leads to intense local synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines that can enter the bloodstream, thereby resulting in elevated levels of inflammatory biomarkers in both gingival tissue and serum [7,8][7][8]. Thus periodontal disease is a major infectious scaffold that could potentiate systemic inflammatory levels, increasing patient morbidity [9]. In order to promptly diagnose and treat periodontal diseases, their classification is mandatory to both help in organising healthcare to patients, and assists scientists and researchers in understanding the aetiopathogenesis and treatment of such diseases in a sequential meticulous pattern. There are various classification systems proposed for the categorisation of these periodontal diseases, of which the newly accepted 2017 AAP classification of periodontal and peri-implant diseases is applicable on categorising the disease on both the basis of its severity, and of the presence or absence of risk factors and complexity [5].
Periodontitis is a common and alterable risk factor for CKD, where it is hypothesised to cause renal impairment through an inflammatory pathway [10]. Inflammation stimulates the invasion of periodontal microorganisms in the host tissue, and directly or indirectly enters the circulatory system [11]. An increased number of inflammatory mediators alter renal parameters, which in turn affects renal functions, thereby leading to the progression of chronic kidney disease. Greater serum antibody levels to periodontal pathogens reflect their systemic dissemination, thereby resulting in their vascular and hepatic activation [12]. There are various studies that discuss the role of periodontitis in CKD, but its impact in the presence of various confounding factors in the progression of the disease still remains unexplored [13,14][13][14].

2. Chronic Kidney Disease Patients in the Presence and Absence of Periodontitis

Periodontitis, characterised by chronic inflammation of the periodontium, is caused by microbial pathogens affecting gingiva, periodontal ligament, and the alveolar bone; when left unchecked, it might result in compromised gingival health leading to tooth loss [18][15]. Early scientific evidence showed that disease progression occurs as a result of an increase in the colonisation of pathogenic subgingival flora, while recent studies have shifted their view on the exacerbated host immune response generated in response of this dysbiosis, thus leading to osteoclastic activity and bone loss [19][16]. The markers of inflammation produced during this complex interaction process between host and bacteria not only result in periodontal destruction, but also circulate from the oral biofilm into systemic circulation, thus triggering a chronic systemic immunoinflammatory response [20][17]. Hence, the association between periodontitis and CKD is credible, as systemic inflammation is an established risk factor of CKD, thus contributing to its progression and severity [21,22][18][19]. The current restudyearch investigates the inflammatory status and prevalence of red complex bacteria in the presence and absence of periodontitis with and without CKD with diabetes as one of the confounding factors. The current restudyearch consisted of 120 subjects categorised in four groups: C (30 patients), P (30 patients), CKD (30 patients), and P + CKD (30 patients). Demographic variables, and diabetic, renal, inflammatory, and periodontal parameters were evaluated. Subgingival plaque samples were collected for the identification of P. gingivalis, T. denticola, and T forsythia. Demographic variables sex, body mass index (BMI), and socioeconomic status did not show any differences among groups and matched for further comparison among groups except for age. Age was significantly greater in the P + CKD group. Findings were accordance with those of studies by Mahendra et al., and Elango et al., who also matched demographic parameters while studying the association of periodontitis with pre-eclampsia and coronary heart disease, respectively [23,24][20][21]. This strongly establishes that age could be an important confounding factor for periodontitis and CKD. The literature suggests that, with increased age, patients are continuously exposed to their aetiological agents, thereby increasing the risk of periodontal destruction and contributing to the progression of other systemic inflammatory diseases such as CKD [25][22]. The comparison of periodontal parameters among groups showed that mean PI, PPD, GI, CAL, percentage of sites with PPD ≥ 5 mm, and CAL ≥ 3 mm were significantly greater in the P + CKD group. According to the World Workshop of Periodontology (2017), percentages of sites with PPD ≥ 5 mm and CAL ≥ 3 mm are two important factors in determining the severity of periodontitis. Similarly, a study by Borawski J et al. also found greater periodontal indices in patients with CKD [26][23]. A study by Desouza et al. stated greater periodontal indices in patients with CKD, suggesting the periodontal inflammation is a risk factor [27][24]. Past evidence also suggests that periodontitis consisting of inflammatory chronic-infection foci can disseminate through systemic circulation, thereby leading to the progression of systemic inflammatory disorders such as CKD [28,29][25][26]. Infection and inflammation mechanistically link systemic illness and periodontal disease. Since systemic inflammation is an established risk factor for CKD, the link between periodontitis and CKD is possible [21,22][18][19]. Comparing diabetic parameters such as FBS and HbA1c levels to those of the other groups showed that the levels were significantly greater in the P + CKD group. This was according to Chang et al., who also observed increased HbA1c levels in CKD patients with increased periodontal pocket depth [30][27]. A systemic review by Deschamps-Lenhardt et al. suggested that periodontitis contributes to the progression and severity of CKD, which may also worsen the diabetic status [14]. Attawood et al. suggested that periodontitis has both direct and indirect effects through diabetes on the incidence of CKD [10]. According to the longitudinal study of George Cindy et al., patients with Stage 3–5 CKD had greater HbA1c and fasting blood glucose levels, which was independent of other risk factors [31][28]. Hence, awareness about systemic comorbidities in periodontitis patients should be taken into consideration while associating with other systemic diseases. In conclusion, the above findings strengthen the association of a causal relationship between periodontitis and CKD progression, with diabetes as one of the major confounding factors, indicating that the second null hypothesis was validated. Regarding renal parameters, serum creatinine was greater in the CKD groups than that in the other groups. A study by Naghsh and Narges et al. suggested that the serum level of creatinine (p = 0.02) had significant association between periodontitis severity and the increase in CAL in chronic kidney disease patients [32][29]. Aravindraj Velayutham et al. also reported increased serum creatinine levels in periodontitis cases [33][30]. Renal function and glomerular filtration rate are most commonly assessed by serum creatinine levels, which are usually elevated with impaired renal function. Similarly, eGFR was lower, suggesting compromised kidney function. This was in accordance with Iwasaki et al. who found that, in two years of a follow-up study, in Japanese elders, the greater risk of decreased renal function (reduction in eGFR) was associated with greater levels of periodontal inflammation [34][31]. Fisher et al. reported that host inflammatory burden is solely attributed to renal disease [35][32]. In CKD, there is a constant systemic inflammatory status, even in unknown aetiology; therefore, periodontitis-induced inflammatory response could synergise the inflammatory burden in these CKD patients [15][33]. Several studies reported that periodontal inflammation is prevalent in the predialytic stage of chronic renal patients [36,37][34][35]. TNF-α plays a vital function in progressing periodontitis by increasing the production of matrix metalloproteinases, thereby leading to periodontal destruction [38][36]. Impaired monocyte function may lead to changes in immune response to infectious agents and overproduce proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α [38][36]. In ourthis studentry, mean TNF-α values were greater in the P and CKD + P groups in comparison with those of other groups. These results were similar to those of Niedzielska et al., who observed that periodontitis patients with CKD had a greater level of proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α. Ficek et al. reported higher levels of TNF-α in patients with acute renal failure (70 pg/mL), and significantly even greater levels in patients undergoing haemodialysis (216 pg/mL) [39][37]. Since periodontitis and CKD are based on an inflammatory milieu, periodontitis could play a role in CKD pathogenesis. Studies showed that inflammation is an important pathogenic factors in renal injury, and inflammatory markers such as TNF-α are positively correlated with CKD prevalence [40,41][38][39]. During the active phase of periodontitis, locally produced inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor-α act systemically, which may lead to the progression of CKD [42][40]. Local inflammatory factors from affected gingiva enter the circulation, thereby increasing systemic inflammation and exacerbating progression. Chronic low-grade inflammation is a common phenomenon in patients with early stages (2 to 4) of CKD [42][40]. Different forms of chronic and acute inflammatory processes could induce an inflammatory response in the kidneys, leading to CKD progression [43][41]. Red complex bacteria remain a major risk for both periodontitis and CKD [44][42]. Studies support that red complex bacteria are at a greater percentile in patients with periodontal disease, which further aggravates kidney disease [45][43]. There is scientific evidence that suggests plausible mechanisms connecting periodontitis and CKD, which include periodontitis being a potential source of bacterial infection in CKD. The presence of periodontitis could aggravate or reactivate inborne bacterial infection in CKD [46,47,48][44][45][46]. In the present sentudry, P.g, T.f, and T.d were greater in the P + CKD group than those in the other groups. Bastos et al. stated that prevailing periodontal bacteria such as P.g, T.f, and T.d are greater in CKD patients than in healthy individuals [49][47], thus validating the first null hypothesis. Fisher et al. evaluated the antibody titre against periodontal bacteria and found that 9% of CKD patients above 40 years of age had a greater antibody titre against P.g and other oral bacteria [50][48]. The Our studyresearch also showed that Pg, Td, and Tf were significantly correlated with periodontal, diabetic, and renal parameters. This suggested that, with an increase in red complex bacterial levels, Egfr, serum creatinine, FBS, HbA1c, and TNF-α were elevated, thus suggesting strong correlation of the above variables in predialytic CKD patients (Table 2).
Table 2. Pearson correlation of red complex bacteria with periodontal, diabetic, and renal parameters.
P.g

CT Value		T.d

CT Value		T.f

CT Value
 Pearson Correlationp ValuePearson Correlationp ValuePearson Correlationp Value
PI score−0.6160.001 *−0.4550.004 *−0.4330.00 *
GI score−0.5710.003 *−0.4670.002 *−0.4320.002 *
TNF-A value (Pg/mL)−0.2440.007 *−0.2230.014 *−0.2000.03 *
Mean probing pocket depth (Mm)−0.5670.004 *−0.4730.001 *−0.3960.001 *
Mean clinical attachment loss−0.5040.002 *−0.4070.003 *−0.3610.003 *
E GFR value0.4790.000 *.2710.003 *.4730.00 *
Fasting blood sugar value (Mg/dL)−0.1970.031 *−0.1820.046 *−0.2080.02 *
Glycated haemoglobin score (%)−0.2430.008 *−0.1930.034 *−0.2670.00 *
CKD, chronic kidney disease; NS, not significant; *, significant; p value ≤ 0.05 was considered to be significant.
Schenkein et al., Dorn et al., and Takahashi et al. stated that Pg, Td and A. actinomycetemcomitans can invade endothelial cells, thus entering the circulation and resulting in bacteraemia [51,52,53][49][50][51]. This was further substantiated by studies by Takeuchi et al. (2011), Tomas et al. (2012), and Reyes et al. (2013) [54,55,56][52][53][54]. According to Shultis et al., periodontal bacteria leading to periodontal inflammation can lead to the progression of CKD [57][55]. The virulence factors of P. gingivalis contribute equally towards the pathogenesis of CKD. Most commonly, fimbriae fimA activates Toll-like receptors on macrophages leading to cAMP. The accumulation of cAMP-activated protein kinase A (PKA) destroys the bacterial nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) that is nuclear factor kappa B-dependent, thus contributing to phagocytosis of macrophages, which may trigger renal inflammation [58][56]. This further leads to the decreased production of nitric oxide by renal endothelial cells, thus contributing to the progression of renal fibrosis (Herrera et al., 2011) [59][57]. Hence, P.gingivalis fimA could be one of the contributing factors for the progression of CKD. Similarly, T.f virulence factor, the serine proteinase inhibitor (serpin) protein, inhibits serine protease production from neutrophils. As a result, T.f is protected from the proteolytic activity of neutrophils, thereby eliciting the immune responses that may further affect renal function (Ksiazek et al., 2015) [58][56]. Chukkapalli et al. identified the genomic DNA of P. gingivalis, F. nucleatum, and T. denticola in the kidneys, thus showing the association of periodontal bacteria with compromised renal function [59][57]. Periodontal pathogens enter renal tissue and damage mesangial cells of the renal matrix, glomerulus, glomerular capillaries, and renal endothelium [13]. Hence, infected and inflamed periodontal pockets with highly organised subgingival Gram-negative biofilms, bacterial byproducts such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and proinflammatory cytokines function as a large reservoir disseminating through blood vessels and reaching distinct organs, thus leading to systemic inflammation [13]. Implementing gold standard nonsurgical periodontal therapy at the initial visit is thus necessary, as it aims at the removal of bacterial deposits. This facilitates reducing the process of inflammation, thereby preventing the occurrence of systemic infiltration. Though the therapy is considered to be the gold standard, eventual bacterial recolonisation after therapy is considered to be a major disadvantage [60][58]. Thus, the administration of adjunct agents that reduce or prevent bacterial recolonisation has gained importance, as they not only reduce bacterial load but also reverse it to a healthy state in optimal conditions. Owing to this field, probiotics in recent years have been in the limelight, as agents contain live microorganisms that, when administered in required amounts, offer a healthy benefit to the host. These probiotics exhibit an immunomodulant effect on periodontopathogens, preventing bacterial growth by numerous mechanisms. Though these probiotics have an adequate number of advantages, the safety margin of live microorganism administration remains a controversial question, especially when administered in immunocompromised individuals. Hence, newer modifications of these probiotics, such as parabiotics that contain inactive microbial cells to initiate the immune modulatory response, and postbiotics that contain microorganisms released during the metabolic activity of the same microorganism itself, are receiving attention in treating periodontitis [61][59]. Overall, this sentudry shows telescopic knowledge on the periodontal inflammation and its influence on chronic kidney disease. Red complex bacteria and TNF-α levels are significantly associated with the aetiopathogenesis or aggravation of periodontitis and CKD. The study confirmed that the greater prevalence of red complex bacteria and TNF-α in CKD patients, with diabetes as one of the confounding factors, has emerged as one of the major contributors for the progression of periodontitis, which paves the way for perirenal continuum.

References

  1. Thomas, R.; Kanso, A.; Sedor, J.R. Chronic Kidney Disease and Its Complications. Prim. Care Clin. Off. Pract. 2008, 35, 329–344.
  2. Hill, N.R.; Fatoba, S.T.; Oke, J.L.; Hirst, J.A.; O’Callaghan, C.A.; Lasserson, D.S.; Hobbs, F.D.R. Global Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0158765.
  3. Malekmakan, L.; Khajehdehi, P.; Pakfetrat, M.; Malekmakan, A.; Mahdaviazad, H.; Roozbeh, J. Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease and Its Related Risk Factors in Elderly of Southern Iran: A Population-Based Study. ISRN Nephrol. 2013, 2013, 427230.
  4. Kumar, P.S. From focal sepsis to periodontal medicine: A century of exploring the role of the oral microbiome in systemic disease. J. Physiol. 2017, 595, 465–476.
  5. Manakil, J. (Ed.) Periodontal Diseases—A Clinician’s Guide; Books on Demand: Norderstedt, Germany, 2012; ISBN 978-953-307-818-2.
  6. Kim, J.; Amar, S. Periodontal disease and systemic conditions: A bidirectional relationship. Odontology 2006, 94, 10–21.
  7. Hajishengallis, G.; Chavakis, T. Local and systemic mechanisms linking periodontal disease and inflammatory comorbidities. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2021, 21, 426–440.
  8. Nazir, M.A. Prevalence of periodontal disease, its association with systemic diseases and prevention. Int. J. Health Sci. (Qassim) 2017, 11, 72–80.
  9. Grubbs, V.; Vittinghoff, E.; Taylor, G.; Kritz-Silverstein, D.; Powe, N.; Bibbins-Domingo, K.; Ishani, A.; Cummings, S.R. The association of periodontal disease with kidney function decline: A longitudinal retrospective analysis of the MrOS dental study. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2016, 31, 466–472.
  10. Lertpimonchai, A.; Rattanasiri, S.; Tamsailom, S.; Champaiboon, C.; Ingsathit, A.; Kitiyakara, C.; Limpianunchai, A.; Attia, J.; Sritara, P.; Thakkinstian, A. Periodontitis as the risk factor of chronic kidney disease: Mediation analysis. J. Clin. Periodontol. 2019, 46, 631–639.
  11. Silva, N.; Abusleme, L.; Bravo, D.; Dutzan, N.; Garcia-Sesnich, J.; Vernal, R.; Hernández, M.; Gamonal, J. Host response mechanisms in periodontal diseases. J. Appl. Oral Sci. 2015, 23, 329–355.
  12. Jain, A.; Kabi, D. Severe periodontitis associated with chronic kidney disease. J. Indian Soc. Periodontol. 2013, 17, 128.
  13. Li, L.; Zhang, Y.-L.; Liu, X.-Y.; Meng, X.; Zhao, R.-Q.; Ou, L.-L.; Li, B.-Z.; Xing, T. Periodontitis Exacerbates and Promotes the Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease Through Oral Flora, Cytokines, and Oxidative Stress. Front. Microbiol. 2021, 12, 656372.
  14. Deschamps-Lenhardt, S.; Martin-Cabezas, R.; Hannedouche, T.; Huck, O. Association between periodontitis and chronic kidney disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Oral Dis. 2019, 25, 385–402.
  15. Cekici, A.; Kantarci, A.; Hasturk, H.; Van Dyke, T.E. Inflammatory and immune pathways in the pathogenesis of periodontal disease. Periodontology 2000 2014, 64, 57–80.
  16. Falcao, A.; Bullón, P. A review of the influence of periodontal treatment in systemic diseases. Periodontology 2000 2019, 79, 117–128.
  17. Ismail, G.; Dumitriu, H.T.; Dumitriu, A.S.; Ismail, F.B. Periodontal Disease: A Covert Source of Inflammation in Chronic Kidney Disease Patients. Int. J. Nephrol. 2013, 2013, 515796.
  18. Hickey, N.A.; Shalamanova, L.; Whitehead, K.A.; Dempsey-Hibbert, N.; van der Gast, C.; Taylor, R.L. Exploring the putative interactions between chronic kidney disease and chronic periodontitis. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 2020, 46, 61–77.
  19. Mahendra, J.; Parthiban, P.S.; Mahendra, L.; Balakrishnan, A.; Shanmugam, S.; Junaid, M.; Romanos, G.E. Evidence Linking the Role of Placental Expressions of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-γ and Nuclear Factor-Kappa B in the Pathogenesis of Preeclampsia Associated With Periodontitis. J. Periodontol. 2016, 87, 962–970.
  20. Ilango, P.; Mahendra, J.; Mahendra, L.; Cherian, S.M.; Kathaperumal, K.; Suresh, V.; Mahalingam, A. Evidence linking the role of periodontal viruses in coronary artery disease with and without periodontitis. J. Periodontol. 2021, 92, 113–122.
  21. Ricardo, A.C.; Athavale, A.; Chen, J.; Hampole, H.; Garside, D.; Marucha, P.; Lash, J.P. Periodontal disease, chronic kidney disease and mortality: Results from the third national health and nutrition examination survey. BMC Nephrol. 2015, 16, 97.
  22. Borawski, J.; Wilczynska-Borawska, M.; Stokowska, W.; Mysliwiec, M. The periodontal status of pre-dialysis chronic kidney disease and maintenance dialysis patients. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2006, 22, 457–464.
  23. de Souza, C.M.; Braosi, A.P.R.; Luczyszyn, S.M.; Olandoski, M.; Kotanko, P.; Craig, R.G.; Trevilatto, P.C.; Pecoits-Filho, R. Association Among Oral Health Parameters, Periodontitis, and Its Treatment and Mortality in Patients Undergoing Hemodialysis. J. Periodontol. 2014, 85, e169–e178.
  24. Shankar, A.; Sun, L.; Klein, B.E.K.; Lee, K.E.; Muntner, P.; Nieto Javier, F.; Tsai, M.Y.; Cruickshanks, K.J.; Schubert, C.R.; Brazy, P.C.; et al. Markers of inflammation predict the long-term risk of developing chronic kidney disease: A population-based cohort study. Kidney Int. 2011, 80, 1231–1238.
  25. Kapellas, K.; Singh, A.; Bertotti, M.; Nascimento, G.G.; Jamieson, L.M. Periodontal and chronic kidney disease association: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nephrology 2019, 24, 202–212.
  26. Chang, J.-F.; Yeh, J.-C.; Chiu, Y.-L.; Liou, J.-C.; Hsiung, J.-R.; Tung, T.-H. Periodontal Pocket Depth, Hyperglycemia, and Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease: A Population-Based Longitudinal Study. Am. J. Med. 2017, 130, 61–69.e1.
  27. George, C.; Matsha, T.E.; Korf, M.; Zemlin, A.E.; Erasmus, R.T.; Kengne, A.P. The agreement between fasting glucose and markers of chronic glycaemic exposure in individuals with and without chronic kidney disease: A cross-sectional study. BMC Nephrol. 2020, 21, 32.
  28. Naghsh, N.; Sabet, N.K.; Vahidi, F.; Mogharehabed, A.; Yaghini, J. Relationship Between Periodontal Disease and Serum Factors in Patients Undergoing Hemodialysis. Open Dent. J. 2017, 11, 701–709.
  29. Balu, P.; Muthu, J.; Velayutham, A.; Ravindran, S. Association between Serum Creatinine and Periodontal Disease Severity—A Comparative Clinicobiochemical Study. J. Sci. Dent. 2020, 10, 3–6.
  30. Iwasaki, M.; Taylor, G.W.; Nesse, W.; Vissink, A.; Yoshihara, A.; Miyazaki, H. Periodontal Disease and Decreased Kidney Function in Japanese Elderly. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2012, 59, 202–209.
  31. Fisher, M.A.; Taylor, G.W.; Shelton, B.J.; Jamerson, K.A.; Rahman, M.; Ojo, A.O.; Sehgal, A.R. Periodontal Disease and Other Nontraditional Risk Factors for CKD. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2008, 51, 45–52.
  32. Lee, C.-F.; Lin, C.-L.; Lin, M.-C.; Lin, S.-Y.; Sung, F.-C.; Kao, C.-H. Surgical Treatment for Patients With Periodontal Disease Reduces Risk of End-Stage Renal Disease: A Nationwide Population-Based Retrospective Cohort Study. J. Periodontol. 2014, 85, 50–56.
  33. Caton, J.G.; Armitage, G.; Berglundh, T.; Chapple, I.L.C.; Jepsen, S.; Kornman, K.S.; Mealey, B.L.; Papapanou, P.N.; Sanz, M.; Tonetti, M.S. A new classification scheme for periodontal and peri-implant diseases and conditions—Introduction and key changes from the 1999 classification. J. Periodontol. 2018, 89, S1–S8.
  34. Chambrone, L.; Foz, A.M.; Guglielmetti, M.R.; Pannuti, C.M.; Artese, H.P.C.; Feres, M.; Romito, G.A. Periodontitis and chronic kidney disease: A systematic review of the association of diseases and the effect of periodontal treatment on estimated glomerular filtration rate. J. Clin. Periodontol. 2013, 40, 443–456.
  35. Pan, W.; Wang, Q.; Chen, Q. The cytokine network involved in the host immune response to periodontitis. Int. J. Oral Sci. 2019, 11, 30.
  36. Ficek, R.; Kokot, F.; Chudek, J.; Adamczak, M.; Ficek, J.; Więcek, A. Plasma Concentrations of Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha May Predict the Outcome of Patients with Acute Renal Failure. Kidney Blood Press. Res. 2006, 29, 203–209.
  37. Kir, H.M.; Eraldemir, C.; Dervisoglu, E.; Caglayan, C.; Kalender, B. Effects of chronic kidney disease and type of dialysis on serum levels of adiponectin, TNF-alpha and high sensitive C-reactive protein. Clin. Lab. 2012, 58, 495–500.
  38. Lee, B.T.; Ahmed, F.A.; Hamm, L.L.; Teran, F.J.; Chen, C.-S.; Liu, Y.; Shah, K.; Rifai, N.; Batuman, V.; Simon, E.E.; et al. Association of C-reactive protein, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and interleukin-6 with chronic kidney disease. BMC Nephrol. 2015, 16, 77.
  39. Fisher, M.A.; Taylor, G.W.; Papapanou, P.N.; Rahman, M.; Debanne, S.M. Clinical and Serologic Markers of Periodontal Infection and Chronic Kidney Disease. J. Periodontol. 2008, 79, 1670–1678.
  40. Stenvinkel, P.; Ketteler, M.; Johnson, R.J.; Lindholm, B.; Pecoits-Filho, R.; Riella, M.; Heimbürger, O.; Cederholm, T.; Girndt, M. IL-10, IL-6, and TNF-α: Central factors in the altered cytokine network of uremia—The good, the bad, and the ugly. Kidney Int. 2005, 67, 1216–1233.
  41. Artese, H.P.C.; de Sousa, C.O.; de Barros Torres, M.C.M.; Silva-Boghossian, C.M.; Colombo, A.P.V. Effect of non-surgical periodontal treatment on the subgingival microbiota of patients with chronic kidney disease. Braz. Oral Res. 2012, 26, 366–372.
  42. Socransky, S.S.; Haffajee, A.D.; Cugini, M.A.; Smith, C.; Kent, R.L. Microbial complexes in subgingival plaque. J. Clin. Periodontol. 1998, 25, 134–144.
  43. Kshirsagar, A.V.; Craig, R.G.; Moss, K.L.; Beck, J.D.; Offenbacher, S.; Kotanko, P.; Klemmer, P.J.; Yoshino, M.; Levin, N.W.; Yip, J.K.; et al. Periodontal disease adversely affects the survival of patients with end-stage renal disease. Kidney Int. 2009, 75, 746–751.
  44. França, L.F.C.; Vasconcelos, A.C.C.G.; da Silva, F.R.P.; Alves, E.H.P.; Carvalho, J.S.; Lenardo, D.D.; de Souza, L.K.M.; Barbosa, A.L.R.; Medeiros, J.-V.R.; de Oliveira, J.S.; et al. Periodontitis changes renal structures by oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation. J. Clin. Periodontol. 2017, 44, 568–576.
  45. Kitamura, M.; Mochizuki, Y.; Miyata, Y.; Obata, Y.; Mitsunari, K.; Matsuo, T.; Ohba, K.; Mukae, H.; Yoshimura, A.; Nishino, T.; et al. Pathological Characteristics of Periodontal Disease in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease and Kidney Transplantation. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 3413.
  46. Bastos, J.A.; Diniz, C.G.; Bastos, M.G.; Vilela, E.M.; Silva, V.L.; Chaoubah, A.; Souza-Costa, D.C.; Andrade, L.C.F. Identification of periodontal pathogens and severity of periodontitis in patients with and without chronic kidney disease. Arch. Oral Biol. 2011, 56, 804–811.
  47. Schenkein, H.A.; Koertge, T.E.; Brooks, C.N.; Sabatini, R.; Purkall, D.E.; Tew, J.G. IL-17 in Sera from Patients with Aggressive Periodontitis. J. Dent. Res. 2010, 89, 943–947.
  48. Dorn, B.R.; Harris, L.J.; Wujick, C.T.; Vertucci, F.J.; Progulske-Fox, A. Invasion of vascular cells in vitro by Porphyromonas endodontalis. Int. Endod. J. 2002, 35, 366–371.
  49. Takahashi, Y.; Davey, M.; Yumoto, H.; Gibson, F.C., III; Genco, C.A. Fimbria-dependent activation of pro-inflammatory molecules in Porphyromonas gingivalis infected human aortic endothelial cells. Cell. Microbiol. 2006, 8, 738–757.
  50. Takeuchi, H.; Furuta, N.; Morisaki, I.; Amano, A. Exit of intracellular Porphyromonas gingivalis from gingival epithelial cells is mediated by endocytic recycling pathway. Cell. Microbiol. 2011, 13, 677–691.
  51. Tomás, I.; Diz, P.; Tobías, A.; Scully, C.; Donos, N. Periodontal health status and bacteraemia from daily oral activities: Systematic review/meta-analysis. J. Clin. Periodontol. 2012, 39, 213–228.
  52. Reyes, L.; Herrera, D.; Kozarov, E.; Roldán, S.; Progulske-Fox, A. Periodontal bacterial invasion and infection: Contribution to atherosclerotic pathology. J. Clin. Periodontol. 2013, 40, S30–S50.
  53. Shultis, W.A.; Weil, E.J.; Looker, H.C.; Curtis, J.M.; Shlossman, M.; Genco, R.J.; Knowler, W.C.; Nelson, R.G. Effect of Periodontitis on Overt Nephropathy and End-Stage Renal Disease in Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2007, 30, 306–311.
  54. Wang, M.; Krauss, J.L.; Domon, H.; Hosur, K.B.; Liang, S.; Magotti, P.; Triantafilou, M.; Triantafilou, K.; Lambris, J.D.; Hajishengallis, G. Microbial Hijacking of Complement–Toll-Like Receptor Crosstalk. Sci. Signal. 2010, 3, ra11.
  55. Herrera, B.S.; Martins-Porto, R.; Campi, P.; Holzhausen, M.; Teixeira, S.A.; Mendes, G.D.; Costa, S.K.P.; Gyurko, R.; Van Dyke, T.E.; Spolidório, L.C.; et al. Local and cardiorenal effects of periodontitis in nitric oxide-deficient hypertensive rats. Arch. Oral Biol. 2011, 56, 41–47.
  56. Ksiazek, M.; Mizgalska, D.; Enghild, J.J.; Scavenius, C.; Thogersen, I.B.; Potempa, J. Miropin, a Novel Bacterial Serpin from the Periodontopathogen Tannerella forsythia, Inhibits a Broad Range of Proteases by Using Different Peptide Bonds within the Reactive Center Loop. J. Biol. Chem. 2015, 290, 658–670.
  57. Chukkapalli, S.S.; Ambadapadi, S.; Varkoly, K.; Jiron, J.; Aguirre, J.I.; Bhattacharyya, I.; Morel, L.M.; Lucas, A.R.; Lakshmyya, K. Impaired innate immune signaling due to combined Toll-like receptor 2 and 4 deficiency affects both periodontitis and atherosclerosis in response to polybacterial infection. Pathog. Dis. 2018, 76, fty076.
  58. Isola, G.; Polizzi, A.; Santonocito, S.; Dalessandri, D.; Migliorati, M.; Indelicato, F. New Frontiers on Adjuvants Drug Strategies and Treatments in Periodontitis. Sci. Pharm. 2021, 89, 46.
  59. Butera, A.; Gallo, S.; Pascadopoli, M.; Maiorani, C.; Milone, A.; Alovisi, M.; Scribante, A. Paraprobiotics in Non-Surgical Periodontal Therapy: Clinical and Microbiological Aspects in a 6-Month Follow-up Domiciliary Protocol for Oral Hygiene. Microorganisms 2022, 10, 337.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Video Production Service
Feedback