Myrica esculenta: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Catherine Yang and Version 1 by Uttam Singh Baghel.

Myrica esculenta (Myricaceae) is a popular medicinal plant most commonly found in the sub-tropical Himalayas. It is widely used in folk medicine to treat several ailments such as asthma, cough, chronic bronchitis, ulcers, inflammation, anemia, fever, diarrhea, and ear, nose, and throat disorders. Due to its multidimensional pharmacological and therapeutic effects, it is well recognized in the ayurvedic pharmacopeia.

  • Myrica esculenta
  • ethnomedicinal
  • phytoconstituents

1. Introduction

Genus Myrica is a large group comprising more than 97 species in the Myricaceae family. This family contains woody plants native to the subtropical and temperate zones of the earth [1]. Plant species of this genus are distributed in China, Taiwan, Japan, Western Highland of Cameroon, North America, South Africa, Australia, Brazil, Ethiopia, Nepal, and India [2,3,4,5][2][3][4][5]. Specifically, Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex. D. Don named ‘Hairy Bayberry’ and widely known as Kaiphal or Kataphala in the Indian subcontinent, is broadly used in Ayurveda (traditional Indian system of medicine) [6,7,8][6][7][8]. But this plant also has other synonyms, such as Myrica sapida Wall. and Myrica farqhariana Wall. [5,9,10][5][9][10]. Myrica plants grow well in nitrogen-depleted soils, mixed forests, agricultural and marginal lands [1,11][1][11]. Morella esculenta (Buch.-Ham. ex. D. Don) I.M. Turner is the newly accepted name for Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex.D. Don, and the later name is treated as a basionym of Morella esculenta. Taxonomical classification of Myrica esculenta is Kingdom: Plantae; Phylum: Tracheophyta; Class: Magnoliopsida; Order: Fagales; Family: Myricaceae; Genus: Morella [12].
M. esculenta is known for its edible fruits and other by-products. Indeed, its fruits have been a potential income generating source for the local tribes of the Meghalaya and sub-Himalayan region [13,14][13][14]. It is likewise known by a variety of names, such as “Katphal” in Sanskrit, “Kaiphal” in Urdu, “Nagatenga” in Assam, ‘Soh-phi’ in Khasi and ‘Box myrtle’ in English [1,15,16,17][1][15][16][17]. All the parts of the M. esculenta plant have huge nutritional and therapeutic importance. Fruits are used for syrups, jams, pickles, and preparation for refreshing drinks [14]. Traditionally, its bark, roots, and leaves are used for the treatment of various ailments and disorders [3,5][3][5]. Besides its traditional uses, bark is also used for making paper and ropes [18]. In addition, M. esculenta fruits and roots are used as an active botanical ingredient in numerous ayurvedic formulations (Table 1).
Table 1.
 Ayurvedic formulations of the plant with their uses and manufacturers.
Formulation Uses Manufacturers References
“Chwayanprash” Improved digestion and strength and enhanced energy Dabur, Patanjali, Nature & Nurture Healthcare [19,20][19][20]
“Katphaladi Churna” Treatment of fever, throat infection, respiratory disorders, and abdominal pain VHCA Ayurveda [19,20][19][20]
“Pushyanuga Churna” Treatment for bleeding disorders and candidiasis AVN Ayurveda,Baidyanat-h [19,20][19][20]
“Katphala Taila” Treatment of joint pain VHCA Ayurveda [19,20][19][20]
“Arimedadi Taila” Helps to relieve tooth decay and breath problem IMIS Pharmaceuticals [19,20][19][20]
“Mahavisagarbha Taila” Used for vata imbalance, neuromuscular conditions VHCA Ayurveda [19,20][19][20]
“Bala Taila” Treatment of vata disorders, respiratory infections and weakness Patanjali [19,20][19][20]
“Khadiradi Gutika” Treatment of dental, oral, throat and tonsillar infections Zandu [19,20][19][20]
“Maha Vatagajankusa Rasa” Rheumatoid arthritis, Migraine, Paralysis, Cough, Cold, Asthma Dabur, Baidyanath, Shree Dhootapapeshwar [19,20][19][20]
“Brihat Phala Ghrta” Treatment of infertility SN Pandit Ayurvedic [19,20][19][20]
More recently, its numerous ethnomedicinal uses led researchers to explore M. esculenta phytochemistry further. For instance, tannins extracted from its bark are used as a dyeing agent [6]. Indeed, the presence of distinct bioactive compounds, such as alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, and volatile oils [8[8][21],21], has been increasingly reported as related to its pharmacological effects. For example, crude extracts and isolated compounds from M. esculenta exhibit both in vivo and in vitro pharmacological activities. Local tribes use the tree for timber, fuel, fodder, wood, likewise as used for tanning and getting yellow colored dye [22,23,24,25][22][23][24][25]. In spite of being a useful tree, the cultivation of the plant is incredibly restricted, and most of the traditional and commercial uses of M. esculenta rely solely on collections from the wild sources by endemic people [26]. Thus, wild sources of the species are underneath impending danger of extinction due to the increase in urbanization, overharvesting, negligence of sustainable use, and over-exploitation of forests and wastelands for industrial uses [27]. Due to the over-exploitation of the natural habitat, limited geographical prevalence and the unresolved problems inherent in seed vitality and germination, alternative propagation and conservation approaches are desperately needed to avoid the possible extinction of this vital species [8]. This species is fundamentally the same as M. rubra, which is ordinarily found in China and Japan. However, M. esculenta contains fruits smaller than about 4–5 mm compared to the M. rubra fruits (12–15 mm) [28]. Although information on phenolic content and antioxidant activity of the fruit extract, juice, jam and marc of M. rubra [19,20,29,30,31,32][19][20][29][30][31][32] is available, this information is lacking for M. esculenta. Previous reviews have suggested that myricetin is obtained mainly by members of the Myricaceae family [33,34][33][34] and is a key ingredient in many foods, besides to be used as a food additive due to its antioxidant activity and ability to protect lipids from oxidative damage [35]. It is one of the key ingredients of various foods and beverages. The compound has a wide range of potentialities that include strong antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory effects, and can protect a wide variety of cells from in-vitro and in vivo lesions [36]. It was first isolated in the late eighteenth century from the bark of Myrica nagi Thunb. (Myricaceae), harvested in India, as light-yellow crystals [37].

2. Ethnomedicinal Uses

M. esculenta, a conventional ayurvedic plant, is used by different native population groups in multiple ways because of the various therapeutic uses of its bark, roots, fruits, leaves and flowers (Table 2) [20,49,55,56][20][38][39][40].
Table 2.
 Ethomedicinal uses of 
M. esculenta.
Plant Part Used Uses Region/Tribe References
Leaf, fruit, root, bark Jaundice Meghalaya, India [23]
Leaf Inflammation of vocal cord Meghalaya, India [24]
Bark Antiseptic Meghalaya, India

Khasi tribe		 [24]
Fruit, bark, leaf Fever Meghalaya, India

Vietnam, South China		 [24]
Bark Anemia Meghalaya, India

Khasi tribe		 [24]
Fruit Refreshing drink “Um Soh-Phi” Meghalaya, India

Khasi tribe		 [24]
Bark Sore Nagaland, India

Zeliang tribe		 [43][41]
Bark Toothache Meghalaya, India

Khasi tribe

Almora, Uttarakhand, India		 [24,41,57][24][42][43]
Bark Sprain Far-flung village, Jajarkot, Nepal [58
]
Fruit
Body ache
Ukhimath block, Uttarakhand, India
[
68
]
[54]
Bark, fruit Headache Mizoram, India

Ukhimath block, Uttarakhand. India		 [64,68][50][54]
Fruit Ulcer Himalaya, India [69][55]
Apart from these ethnomedicinal uses, various fruit industries in Himalaya used its fruits for making syrup, jam, and squash [70][56]. The Khasi tribe of Meghalaya uses its bark as fish poison while the extracted tannin from its bark is use as a tanning and dyeing agent [71][57]. Local peoples in Arunachal Pradesh use this tree for timber and fuel [22].

3. Phytochemistry

Phytochemical screening performed on leaves, stem bark, bark, fruits and fine branches of M. esculenta revealed several active phytoconstituents such as tannins, phenolic acids, flavonoids, terpenes, glycosides, steroids, volatile oils, and amino acids [8,21][8][21]. These phytoconstituents have shown a wide variety of pharmacological effects. HPTLC profiles of various extracts from different M. esculenta plant parts are presented in Table 53. The mobile phase used to develop the HPTLC chromatogram for n-hexane, ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts of stem bark and fine branches were toluene: ethyl acetate (5:5 v/v), toluene: ethyl acetate (7:3 v/v) and toluene: ethyl acetate: formic acid (5:5:0.5 v/v) [8] respectively, while for leaves, ethyl acetate, methanol and aqueous extracts of leaves toluene: ethyl acetate (7:3) was used [21].
Table 53.
 HPTLC profile of various extracts of different parts of 
M. esculenta.
Extract Wavelength (nm) Rf Value References
Stem Bark Small Branches Leaves
n-hexane 254 0.49, 0.69, 0.88 0.49, 0.78 NR [8]
366 0.42, 0.51, 0.59, 0.74, 0.83,0.91 0.42, 0.51, 0.74,0.83,0.91
Ethyl acetate 254 0.07, 0.12, 0.36, 0.47, 0.61, 0.67, 0.84 0.47, 0.67 0.15, 0.6, 0.8 [8,21][8][21]
366 0.11, 0.15, 0.18, 0.33, 0.38, 0.55, 0.49, 0.65, 0.75, 0.85, 0.90 0.18, 0.30, 0.49, 0.65, 0.75, 0.85, 0.90 0.11, 0.22, 0.38, 0.53, 0.69, 0.82, 0.93
Ethanol 254 0.23, 0.54 0.23, 0.54 NR [8]
366 0.54, 0.73, 0.84 0.25, 0.45, 0.54, 0.73, 0.84
Methanol 254 NR NR 0.625, 0.875 [21]
366 0.46, 0.58, 0.81, 0.86, 0.93
][
Aqueous 25444 NR]
NR 0.1, 0.63 [21] Flower, bark, leaf Inflammation, paralysis Meghalaya, India

Khasi tribe

Vietnam, South China		 [24,59][24][45]
Unripe fruit Anthelmintic Himachal Pradesh, India [59][45]
Fruit Bronchitis, dysentery Nepalese community, Nepal [60][46]
Bark Mental illness
366 0.093, 0.65, 0.81 Orissa, India [61][47]
Bark Skin disorder Vietnam, South China [62][48]
Bark Cholera Mizoram, India [63,64][49][50]
Bark Cardiac debility, cardiac edema Meghalaya, India [64][50]
Bark Carminative Meghalaya, India

Khasi tribe

Mizoram, India		 [22,64][22][50]
Bark, leaf Asthma, chronic bronchitis, lung infection Meghalaya, India

Khasi tribe

Vietnam, South China

Chaubas and Syabru, Nepal		 [23,63,65][23][49][51]
Flower Earache Meghalaya, India

Khasi tribe

Almor, Uttarakhand, India

Himachal Pradesh, India		 [24,41,49,66][24][42][38][52]
Bark, flower, leaf, fruit Diarrhea, dysentery, stomach problem Meghalaya, India

Khasi tribe

Almora, Uttarakhand, India

Chungtia village, Nagaland, India		 [24,66,67][24][52][53]
Leaf Redness of mucosa Chungtia village, Nagaland, India [67][53

3.1. Tannins and Phenolic Acids

M. esculenta bark present gallic acid; epigallocatechin 3-O-gallate; epigallocatechin-(4β→8)-epigallocatechin3-O-gallate;3-O-galloyl-epigallocatechin-(4β→8)-epigalloc-atechin3-O-gallate along with the hydrolyzable tannin castalagin [6,75][6][58]. Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography analysis of fruit extract showed the presence of catechin;gallic acid; chlorogenic acid and ρ-coumaric acids [76][59]. Ethyl-β-D-glucopyranoside; 3-hydroxybenzaldehyde; isovanillin; 4-(hydroxymethyl)-phenol; 4-methoxybenzoic acid have been identified in leaves [77][60]. LC-MS analysis of fruit extract also indicated the presence of bioactive compounds, such as gallic acid and ferulic acids [78][61].

3.2. Flavonoids

Myricetin was also reported in leaves, fruits, and stem bark [8[8][62][40],46,56], whereas quercetin was found only in leaves [79][63].
Two flavonoid glycosides flavone 4′-hydroxy-3′,5,5′-trimethoxy-7-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl(1→4) -α-L-rhamnopyranoside and flavone 3′,4′-dihydroxy-6-methoxy-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside were found in the leaves [79][63], while myricetin-3-O-(2″-Ogalloyl)-α-L-rhamnopyranoside and myricetin 3-O-(2″-O-galloyl)-α-L-rhamnopyranoside were revealed in bark [78][61]. Myricetin 3-O-rhamnoside (myricitrin) was accounted in both M. esculenta bark, and leaves [46,77,79,80][62][60][63][64].

3.3. Terpenes

Monoterpenoid

Myresculoside (4-hydroxy-1,8-cineole 4-O-β-dapiofuranosyl (1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside) were reported in the leaves of M. esculenta [46][62].

3.4. Triterpenoids

Numerous triterpenoids such as lupeol; Oleanolic acid;trihydroxytaraxaranoic acid; dihydroxytaraxerane; dihydroxytaraxaranoic acid; tetrahydroxytaraxenoic aci; 3-epi-ursonic acid; arjunolic acid were reported in bark and leaves of M. esculenta [46,75,81,82][62][58][65][66].

3.5. Volatile Compounds

The volatile compounds identified in leaves [83][67] were nerolidol; α-pinene; α-selinene; β-caryophyllene; β-selinen; α-caryophyllene; α-cadinol; linalool; whereas in bark were n-hexadecanol; eudesmol acetate and n-octadecanol [82][66].

3.6. Proanthocyanidins

M. esculenta bark revealed the presence of proanthocyanidins, such as proanthocyanidin acetate; proanthocyanidin methyl-ether and prodelhinidin [84,85][68][69].

3.7. Diarylheptanoids

M. esculenta bark, leaves and root exhibited the presence of diaylheptanoids. Myricanol and myricnone were reported in bark [6,84,86][6][68][70] and leaves, whereas 13-oxomyricanolwas reported in root [86][70], 5-O-β-D-glucopyranosylmyricanol was accounted in leaves [45][71], and 16-bromomyricanol was identified in bark [86][70].

3.8. Steroids

β-rosasterol; daucosterol; β-sitosterol-β-D-glucopyranoside were identified in leaves [77,80][60][64] where as taraxerol, stigmasterol were found in bark [74,80,87][72][64][73]. β-sitosterol was identified in both M. esculenta leaves [77,80][60][64] and bark [81,88][65][74]. Other miscellaneous compounds, such as amino acids; 1-ethyl-4-methylcyclohexane, myo-inositol, methyl-d-lyxofuranoside, 2-furancarboxyaldehyde, 2,5-furandionedihydro-3-methylene, furfural, oxirane were also reported in M. esculenta fruits [73,78][75][61].
The structures of some important bioactive phytoconstituents reported in M. esculenta plant are presented in Figure 41.
Plants 08 00149 g004a 550Plants 08 00149 g004b 550Plants 08 00149 g004c 550
Figure 41. Structure of some isolated bioactive compounds from different parts of M. esculenta. (1) Gallic acid, (2) Epigallocatechin 3-O-gallate, (3) i) Epigallocatechin-(4β→8)-epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate, ii) 3-O-galloyl-epigallocatechin-(4β→8)-epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate, (4) Castalagin, (5) Catechin, (6) Chlorogenic acid, (7) p-coumaric acid, (8) Ethyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, (9) 3-hydroxybenzaldehyde, (10) Isovanillin, (11) Ferulic acid, (12) Myricetin, (13) i) Flavone 4′-hydroxy-3′,5,5′-trimethoxy-7-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranoside, ii) flavone 3′,4′-dihydroxy-6-methoxy-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside, (14) Myricitrin, (15) Lupeol, (16) Oleanolic acid, (17) Trihydroxytaraxaranoic acid, (18) Dihydroxytaraxerane, (19) Dihydroxytaraxaranoic acid, (20) Tetrahydroxytaraxenoic acid, (21) 3-epi-ursonic acid, (22) Prodelphinidin dimer, (23) Myricanol, (24) Myricanone.

4. Pharmacological Profile

Extracts from M. esculenta possess a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities. Previous research revealed that phenolic compounds are highly active antioxidants, and such antioxidant-rich botanicals offer promising potential in the management of degenerative ailments. Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites synthesized in plants in response to environmental stresses such as attacks from pathogens and insects, UV radiation, and injuries [5,6,7][5][6][7]. These phytochemicals have the ability to eliminate hydroxyl radicals [89][76], superoxide anion radicals [90][77], lipid peroxyl radicals [91][78] and even to chelate metals, besides to play a vital role in the stability of food products, as well as in the defense mechanisms of biological systems [4,8][4][8]. These molecules also prevent oxidative losses and have cytoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and adaptogenic properties. It was found that relatively high amounts of phenolic compounds are present in M. esculenta fruits than M. rubra [76][59]. The antioxidant activity of M. esculenta fruits and bark has been reported by using different antioxidant assays.

References

  1. Yanthan, M.; Misra, A.K. Molecular approach to the classification of medicinally important actinorhizal genus Myrica. Indian J. Biotechnol. 2013, 12, 133–136.
  2. Silva, B.J.C.; Seca, A.M.L.; Barreto, C.M.D.; Pinto, D.C.G.A. Recent breakthroughs in the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Morella and Myrica species. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16, 17160–17180.
  3. Kumar, A.; Rana, A.C. Pharmacognostic and pharmacological profile of traditional medicinal plant: Myrica nagi. Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2013, 3, 32–37.
  4. Sun, C.; Huang, H.; Xu, C.; Li, X.; Chen, K. Biological activities of extracts from Chinese bayberry (Myrica rubra Sieb. et Zucc.): A review. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2013, 68, 97–106.
  5. Sood, P.; Shri, R. A review on ethnomedicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of Myrica esculenta. Indian J. Pharm. Sci. 2018, 80, 2–13.
  6. Sun, D.; Zhao, Z.; Wong, H.; Foo, L.Y. Tannins and other phenolics from Myrica esculenta bark. Phytochemistry 1988, 27, 579–583.
  7. Annonymous. The Wealth of India; Council of Scientific and Industrial Research: New Delhi, India, 1962; p. 472.
  8. Srivastava, B.; Sharma, V.C.; Pant, P.; Pandey, N.K.; Jadhav, A.D. Evaluation for substitution of stem bark with small branches of Myrica esculenta for medicinal use-A comparative phytochemical study. J. Ayurveda Integr. Med. 2016, 7, 1–6.
  9. Nadkarni, K.M. Indian Materia Medica, 3rd ed.; Popular Book Depot: Mumbai, India, 2002; p. 871.
  10. Huguet, V.; Gouy, M.; Normand, P.; Zimpfer, J.M.; Fernandez, M.P. Molecular phylogeny of Myricaceae: A reexamination of host symbiont specificity. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2005, 34, 557–568.
  11. Bhatt, I.D.; Rawal, R.S.; Dhar, U. Improvement in seed germination of Myrica esculenta Buch. Ham. Ex D. Don- A high value tree species of Kumanun Himalaya, India. Seed Sci. Technol. 2000, 28, 597–605.
  12. Catalogue of Life: 2019 Annual Checklist. Available online: http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col/search/all/key/myrica+esculenta+/fossil/1/match/1 (accessed on 15 May 2019).
  13. Pandey, G.; Sharma, B.D.; Hore, D.K.; Rao, N.K. Indigenous minor fruits genetic resources and their marketing status in north-eastern hills of India. J. Hill Res. 1993, 6, 1–4.
  14. Makdoh, K.; Lynser, M.B.; Pala, K.H.M. Marketing of Indigenous Fruits: A Source of Income among Khasi Women of Meghalaya, North East India. J. Agric. Sci. 2014, 5, 1–9.
  15. MacDnald, A.D. The morphology and relationships of the Myricaceae. Evol. Syst. Foss. Hist. Hamamelidae 1989, 2, 147–165.
  16. Haridasan, K.; Rao, R.R. Forest Flora of Meghalaya; Caprifoliaceae to Salicaceae; Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh: Dehradun, India, 1987; Volume 2, pp. 851–852.
  17. Paranjpe, P. Indian Medicinal Plants, 3rd ed.; Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan: New Delhi, India, 2012; p. 128.
  18. Bhatt, I.D.; Dhar, U. Factors controlling micropropagation of Myrica esculenta Buch. -Ham. ex D. Don: A high value wild edible of Kumaun Himalaya. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2004, 3, 534–540.
  19. Bao, J.; Cai, Y.; Sun, M.; Wang, G.; Corke, H. Anthocyanins, flavonols, and free radical scavenging activity of Chinese Bayberry (Myrica rubra) extracts and their color properties and stability. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 2327–2332.
  20. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, part I, 1st ed.; Government of India, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Department of Indian System of Medicine and Homeopathy: New Delhi, India, 1999; Volume III, pp. 92–93.
  21. Kabra, A.; Sharma, R.; Singla, S.; Kabra, R.; Baghel, U.S. Pharmacognostic characterization of Myrica esculenta leaves. J. Ayurveda Integr. Med. 2017, 10, 18–24.
  22. Dollo, M.; Samal, P.K.; Sundriyal, R.C.; Kumar, K. Environmentally sustainable traditional natural resource management and conservation in Ziro valley, Arunachal Himalaya, India. J. Am. Sci. 2009, 5, 41–52.
  23. Kumar, J.K.; Sinha, A.K. Resurgence of natural colourants: A holistic view. Nat. Prod. Res. 2004, 18, 59–84.
  24. Jeeva, S.; Lyndem, F.B.; Sawian, J.T.; Laloo, R.C.; Mishra, B.P. Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.—A potential ethnomedicinal species in a subtropical forest of Meghalaya, northeast India. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2011, 1, S174–S177.
  25. Bhatt, B.P.; Tomar, J.M.S.; Bujarbaruah, K.M. Characteristics of Some Firewood trees and shrubs of the North Eastern Himalayan Region, India. Renew. Energy 2004, 29, 1401–1405.
  26. Kala, C.P. Prioritization of cultivated and wild edibles by local people in the Uttaranchal hills of Indian Himalaya. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 2007, 6, 239–243.
  27. Gusain, Y.S.; Khanduri, V.P. Myrica esculenta wild edible fruit of Indian Himalaya: Need a sustainable approach for indigenous utilization. Ecol. Environ. Conserv. 2016, 22, S267–S270.
  28. Gupta, R.K. The Living Himalaya; Today and Tomorrow Printers and Publishers: Delhi, India, 1989; Volume 2.
  29. Fang, Z.; Zhang, M.; Wang, L. HPLC-DAD-ESIMS analysis of phenolic compounds in bayberries (Myrica rubra Sieb. et Zucc.). Food Chem. 2007, 100, 845–852.
  30. Zhang, W.S.; Li, X.; Zheng, J.T.; Wang, G.Y.; Sun, C.D.; Ferguson, I.B. Bioactive components and antioxidant capacity of Chinese bayberry (Myrica rubra Sieb. and Zucc.) fruit in relation to fruit maturity and post harvesting storage. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2008, 227, 1091–1097.
  31. Fang, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Lu, Y.; Ma, G.; Chen, J.; Liu, D.; Ye, X. Phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacities of bayberry juices. Food Chem. 2009, 113, 884–888.
  32. Zhou, S.H.; Fang, Z.X.; Lu, Y.; Chen, J.C.; Liu, D.H.; Ye, X.Q. Phenolics and antioxidant properties of bayberry (Myrica rubra Sieb. et Zucc.) pomace. Food Chem. 2009, 112, 394–399.
  33. Lau-Cam, C.A.; Chan, H.H. Flavonoids from Comptonia peregrine. Phytochemistry 1973, 12, 1829.
  34. Jones, J.R.; Lebar, M.D.; Jinwal, U.K.; Abisambra, J.F.; Koren, J.; Blair, L.; O’Leary, J.C.; Davey, Z.; Trotter, J.; Johnson, A.G. The diarylheptanoid (+)-aR,11S-myricanol and two flavones from bayberry (Myrica cerifera) destabilize the microtubule-associated protein tau. J. Nat. Prod. 2011, 74, 38–44.
  35. Semwal, D.K.; Semwal, R.B.; Combrinck, S.; Viljoen, A. Myricetin: A Dietary Molecule with Diverse Biological Activities. Nutrients 2016, 8, 90.
  36. Zhang, X.; Zhang, K.; Wang, Y.; Ma, R. Biological effects study of Myricitrin and relevant molecular mechanisms. Curr. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2019, 14.
  37. Perkin, A.G.; Hummel, J.J. LXXVI-The colouring principle contained in the bark of Myrica nagi Part I. J. Chem. Soc. Trans. 1896, 69, 1287–1294.
  38. Parmar, C.; Kaushal, M.K. Wild Fruits of the Sub-Himalayan Region. In Myrica nagi; Parmar, C., Kaushal, M.K., Eds.; Kalyani Publishers: New Delhi, India, 1982; pp. 49–53.
  39. Mallya, S.V.; Nesari, T.; Kumar, K.N. Pharmacognostic standards of Katphala (Myrica nagi Hook. f. non-Thumb); A potent bark drug used in Indian systems of medicine. J. Sci. Innov. Res. 2016, 5, 135–137.
  40. Panthari, P.; Kharkwal, H.; Kharwal, H.; Joshi, D.D. Myrica nagi: A review on active constituents, biological and therapeutic effects. Int. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 2012, 4, 38–42.
  41. Singh, N.P.; Gajurel, P.R.; Rethy, P. Ethnomedicinal value of traditional food plants used by the Zeliang tribe of Nagaland. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 2015, 14, 298–305.
  42. Kirtikar, K.R.; Basu, B.D. Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. III, 2nd ed.; International book distributors: New Delhi, India, 1999; p. 1699.
  43. Boloor, V.A.; Hosadurga, R.; Rao, A.; Jenifer, H.; Pratap, S. Unconventional Dentistry in India – An Insight into the Traditional Methods. J. Trad. Complement. Med. 2014, 4, 153–158.
  44. Manandhar, N.P. A survey of medicinal plants of Jajarkot district, Nepal. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1995, 48, 1–6.
  45. Nainwal, P.; Kalra, K. Study on the wound activity potential on the aqueous extract of the bark of Myrica esculenta Buch. &Ham. Int. J. Pharm. Clin. Res. 2009, 1, 85–87.
  46. Gaire, B.P.; Subedi, L. Medicinal Plant Diversity and their Pharmacological Aspects of Nepal Himalayas. Pharmacogn. J. 2011, 25, 6–17.
  47. Khan, M.Y.; Sagrawat, H.; Upmanyu, N.; Siddique, S. Anxiolytic Properties of Myrica nagi Bark Extract. Pharm. Biol. 2008, 46, 757–761.
  48. Bich, D.H.; Chung, D.Q.; Chuong, B.X.; Dong, N.T.; Dam, D.T.; Hien, P.V.; Lo, V.N.; Mai, P.D.; Man, P.K.; Nhu, D.T.; et al. The Medicinal Plants and Animals in Vietnam; Hanoi Science and Technology Publishing House: Hanoi, Vietnam, 2004; Volume 1, pp. 612–613.
  49. Joshi, A.R.; Edington, J.M. The use of medicinal plants by two village communities in the Central Development Region of Nepal. Econ. Bot. 1990, 44, 71–83.
  50. Sharma, H.K.; Chhangte, L.; Dolui, A.K. Traditional medicinal plants in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia 2001, 72, 146–161.
  51. Shrestha, N.; Prasai, D.; Shrestha, K.K.; Shrestha, S.; Zhang, X.C. Ethnomedicinal practices in the highlands of central Nepal: A case study of Syaphru and Langtang village in Rasuwa district. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2014, 155, 1204–1221.
  52. Kumari, P.; Joshi, G.C.; Tewari, L.M. Diversity and status of ethnomedicinal trees of Almora district in Uttarakhand, India. Int. J. Biodivers. Conserv. 2011, 3, 298–326.
  53. Kichu, M.; Malewska, T.; Akter, K.; Imchen, I.; Harrington, D.; Kohen, J.; Vemulpad, S.R.; Jamie, J.F. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Chungtia village, Nagaland, India. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2015, 166, 5–17.
  54. Semwal, D.P.; Saradhi, P.P.; Kala, C.P.; Sajwan, B.S. Medicinal plants used by local Vaidyas in Ukhimath block, Uttarakhand. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 2010, 9, 480–485.
  55. Bhatt, I.D.; Rawat, S.; Badhani, A.; Rawal, R.S. Nutraceutical potential of selected wild edible fruits of the Indian Himalayan region. Food Chem. 2017, 215, 84–91.
  56. Dhyani, P.P.; Dhar, U. Myrica esculenta, Box Myrtle (Kaiphal); Himavikas Occasional Publication; GB Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development: Almora, India, 1994.
  57. Pala, N.A.; Negi, A.K.; Todaria, N.P. Traditional uses of medicinal plants of Pauri Garhwal, Uttrakhand. Nat. Sci. 2010, 8, 57–61.
  58. Singh, N.; Khatoon, S.; Srivastava, N.; Rawat, A.; Mehrotra, S. Qualitative and quantitative standardization of Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. Stem bark by use of HPTLC. J. Planar Chromatogr. 2009, 22, 287–291.
  59. Rawat, S.; Jugran, A.; Giri, L.; Bhatt, I.D.; Rawal, R.S. Assessment of antioxidant properties in fruits of Myrica esculenta: A popular wild edible species in Indian Himalayan Region. Evid. Based Complet. Altern. Med. 2011, 2011, 1–8.
  60. Wei, Y.; Chang-ming, T.; Xian, L.; Ya, Z.; Li, W.; Liang, L. Study on the chemical constituents of Myrica esculenta. J. Yunnan Univ. (Nat. Sci.) 2011, 33, 453–457.
  61. Mann, S.; Satpathy, G.; Gupta, R.K. In-vitro evaluation of bioprotective properties of underutilized Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don fruit of Meghalaya. Indian J. Nat. Prod. Resour. 2015, 6, 183–188.
  62. Nguyen, X.N.; Phan, V.K.; Chau, V.M.; Bui, H.T.; Nguyen, X.C.; Vu, K.T.; Hoang le, T.A.; Jo, S.H.; Jang, H.D.; Kwon, Y.I.; et al. A new monoterpenoid glycoside from Myrica esculenta and the inhibition of Angiotensin I-Converting Enzyme. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2010, 58, 1408–1410.
  63. Dawang, S.; Zuchun, Z.; Foo, L.Y.; Wong, H. Flavonols from Myrica esculenta bark. Chem. Indus. Forest Prod. 1991, 4, 251–257.
  64. Bamola, A.; Semwal, D.K.; Semwal, S.; Rawat, U. Flavonoid glycosides from Myrica esculenta leaves. J. Indian Chem. Soc. 2009, 86, 535–536.
  65. Available online: http://www.niscair.res.in/activitiesandservices/products/wealth-ofIndiaFolder2010.pdf (accessed on 15 May 2019).
  66. Agnihotri, S.; Wakode, S.; Ali, M. Triterpenoids from the stem bark of Myrica esculenta Buch Ham. World J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 2016, 5, 1319–1327.
  67. Hui-fen, M.A.; Zheng-liang, Y.; Sang-zi, Z.E.; Yong-jie, L.; De-lu, N.; Zhen, Y.U. GC/MS analysis of volatile components from leaf of Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. Guangdong Agric. Sci. 2011, 16, 18.
  68. Krishnamoorthy, V.; Seshadri, T.R. A new Proanthocyanidin from the stem bark of Myrica nagi thumb. Tetrahedron 2001, 22, 2367–2371.
  69. Mei, W.D.; Hong, C.J.; Mei, W.Y.; Man, X.; Song, W.Z. Study on ultrasound-assisted extraction of proanthocyanidins from Myrica esculenta Bark. Chem. Ind. Forest Prod. 2009, 29, 105–109.
  70. Begley, M.J.; Campbell, R.V.M.; Crombie, L.; Tuck, B.; Whiting, D.A. Constitution and absolute configuration of meta, metabridged, stained biphenyls from Myrica nagi: X-ray analysis of 16-bromomyricanol. J. Chem. Soc. C Org. 1971, 1970, 3634–3642.
  71. Shrestha, P.M.; Dhillion, S.S. Medicinal plant diversity and use in the highlands of Dolakha district, Nepal. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2003, 86, 81–96.
  72. Patel, V.G.; Patel, K.G.; Patel, K.V.; Gandhi, T.R. Development of Standardisation parameters and Isolation of Phytomarker Myricetin from stem bark of Myrica esculenta Buch. Ham. Ex d. Don. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 2017, 6, 29–34.
  73. Malterud, K.E.; Anthonsen, T. 13-oxomyricanol, a new -metacyclophane from Myrica nagi. Phytochemistry 1980, 19, 705–707.
  74. Agarwal, K.P.; Roy, A.C.; Dhar, M.L. Triterpenes from the Bark of Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. Indian J. Chem. 1963, 1, 28–30.
  75. Chandra, S.; Saklani, S.; Mishra, A.P.; Badoni, P.P. Nutritional evaluation, antimicrobial activity and phytochemical screening of wild edible fruit of Myrica nagi pulp. Int. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 2012, 4, 407–411.
  76. Husain, S.R.; Cillard, J.; Cillard, P. Hydroxyl radical scavenging activity of flavonoids. Phytochemistry 1987, 26, 2489–2491.
  77. Afanaslev, I.B.; Dorozhko, A.I.; Bordskii, A.V. Chelating and free radical scavenging mechanisms of inhibitory action of rutin and quercetin in lipid peroxidation. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1989, 38, 1763–1769.
  78. Torel, J.; Cillard, J.; Cillard, P. Antioxidant activity of flavonoids and reactivity with peroxy radical. Phytochemistry 1986, 25, 383–385.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Video Production Service
Feedback