Veterinary Clinical Teaching: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 1 by Kiro Petrovski and Version 6 by Vicky Zhou.

The aim of clinical teaching in veterinary medicine is preparing graduates to meet all required veterinary graduate attributes. The veterinary learner needs to understand the various potential constraints in their clinical education. In addition to government and professional regulations, the animal and their welfare are essential considerations, as is the impact of food animal clinical practice on food safety. Indeed, the environmental considerations around repercussions of veterinary products (e.g., diclofenac and the Asian Vulture Crisis) parallel food safety and welfare.

 

  • animal science
  • clinical activities
  • clinical practice
  • teaching
  • traditional academic setting
  • veterinary learners
  • work-based learning

1. Introduction

The aim of clinical teaching in veterinary medicine is preparing graduates to meet all required veterinary graduate attributes. As illustrated in Figure 1, there are many factors to consider when designing or assessing veterinary clinical education. The veterinary learner needs to understand the various potential constraints in their clinical education. In addition to government and professional regulations, the animal and their welfare are essential considerations, as is the impact of food animal clinical practice on food safety. Indeed, the environmental considerations around repercussions of veterinary products (e.g., diclofenac and the Asian Vulture Crisis) parallel food safety and welfare [1][2].
Vetsci 09 00017 g001
Figure 1. Factors to consider in veterinary clinical education and practice.
Clinical teaching methodology should not be restricted to the ‘clinical years’ but rather be addressed throughout the curriculum, as we have been discussed previously [3]. Veterinary school accreditation bodies and some registration authorities tightly regulate the minimum requirements of experiential learning of veterinary learners. Many of these requirements are historic, before animal welfare standards and other ethical responsibilities were set. Over time, a number of factors have changed the learning environment (Box 1) and now alternative approaches to delivering some of the experiential learning may need to be considered.
Box 1. Factors that have led to the need for alternative methods of delivery of clinical teaching in lieu of exposure to real-life practice. AAVMC—American Association of Veterinary Medical Colleges (North America); EAEVE—European Association of Establishments for Veterinary Education (Europe); RCVS—Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (United Kingdom); VSCAAC—Veterinary Schools Accreditation and Advisory Committee (Australasia).
  • Accreditation/Regulatory Requirements (e.g., AAVMC, EAEVE, RCVS, VSAAC)
  • Alternative approaches for learners refusing clinical teaching with live animals, which is a growing concern
  • Animal rights activism
  • Availability of animal models in Lab skills in order to avoid the use of live animals
  • Caseload per clinical instructor
  • Demand for exposure to different settings
  • Departmental pressure
  • Following the example from other areas of the OneHealth initiative
  • Increasing learner numbers
  • Increasing specialization at university veterinary hospitals
  • Interruptions to delivery (e.g., Covid-19 pandemic)
  • Minimal access to live animals, including restrictions on availability of shelter animals
  • Staff shortages
Cited literature [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]
One of the considerations should be the involvement of community-based veterinary service providers in clinical teaching of veterinary learners, both for clinical setting and work-based learning. Many veterinary schools have taken advantage of these opportunities with some having completely dispersed their clinical teaching off site, whilst others have restricted such exposure only to work-related learning. Independently of the approach to the experiential learning delivery, it is important to maintain the integrity of training within prescribed ethical limits.
Unfortunately, despite a significant proportion of veterinary medical education occurring in clinical settings, the literature describing teaching approaches during exposure to practice are limited. Therefore, we felt that this review could facilitate discussion and/or research in this area.
Clinical teaching can be delivered in a variety of settings [4][3][11][12][13] with successful clinical teaching depending on a variety of factors, including the complex interplay between personalities, beliefs and teaching settings [12][14]. Achieving the learning objectives and attaining the graduate attributes of veterinary learners are less affected by the setting where the clinical encounter occurs but more important are the skills of the clinical instructor to deliver the clinical teaching using a multidimensional approach [7][12]. Additionally, clinical teaching can provide the connection between universities and veterinary health providers [6].
Finally, the importance of mental health support in veterinary practice should not be forgotten. Veterinary learners/practitioners are three times more likely to commit suicide compared to the general population [15]. Clinical teaching could play a vital role in legitimizing that veterinary practice can take various emotional tolls, which also translate to physical repercussions [15][16].

2. Structuring Clinical Teaching for High Efficacy

Clinical teaching should be structured in a way that ensures effective teaching and stimulates deep-learning [17][7][18][19][20] (Table 1). The number of cases seen appears to be less important than the opportunity to be involved [4][9][12][21]. A real involvement of the learner would provide opportunity for development of clinical reasoning skills. There must be opportunities to develop deep learning [21] which may be achieved by traditional delivery or blended delivery of the clinical teaching [22][23][24]. The opportunity to teach others should be utilized [21][25]. This should be independent of the type of case (e.g., case-based scenario or a ‘real’ clinical case, either carefully selected or ‘whatever comes through the door’ (the ‘clinical encounter’). For stimulation of deeper learning, the management of the case encounter can utilize a clinical teaching model, such as the Five microskills model, including debriefing with elements of reflection [3].
Table 1. Structuring the clinical teaching for high efficacy.
Strategy Attributes
Clinical encounter Case-based/Real/Simulated; Carefully selected to allow progression of the learner from ‘simple’ to ‘more complex’; Stimulate teamwork
Independent learning Case of the day/week; Case/Exit/Grand rounds; Question banks; Poster; Project; Report
Orientation Discuss the usual approaches; Find out learners’ expectations/level of knowledge and expertise; Introduce facility; Introduce team; Set time for feedback; Set expectations; Set levels of responsibility
Planning Debriefing after dealing with client/patient; Levels of responsibility when dealing with client/patient; How/What/When/Where/Who/Why when dealing with client/patient; Responsibility for veterinary medical records
Reflection Debriefing on every case; What went well; What could be improved
Cited literature [7][26][27][28][29][30].

3. Potential Strategies to Minimize the Impact of Alternative Settings and Approaches on Learner Outcomes

The main perceived deficit of the alternatives to exposure to real clients and patients is the lack of a ‘clinical encounter’. To minimize the potential negative impact of alternative approaches to exposure to practice, these must be viewed as complimentary rather than being relied on as a single approach to delivery [26]. For any of the proposed strategies to be effective, it is important they be clearly elaborated in the orientation of learners. In that way, learners are aware of the process, expectations and responsibilities. Strategies to minimize the impact of alternative approaches on the learner’s experience and training during the curriculum must address the efficacy of the clinical teaching through addressing
○ Incorporation of simulation models within a case-based scenario rather than a practical class only, e.g., when using a bovine venipuncture simulation model, the scenario would look like: “A cow presented with progressively decreasing milk yield and exercise intolerance”. The scenario should guide learners to gather additional information
■ Obtain health interview information from the client (for teaching purposes it should be available on request in a full format or summarized but without interpretations);
■ Clinical examination results of the patient (for teaching purposes it should be available on request in a full format or summarized but without interpretations);
■ Findings should indicate a clinical anemia. To confirm the anemia, the learners would hopefully arrive at the need to collect a blood sample;
■ At that moment learners can be allowed to approach the model and carry out the skill;
■ These points are summarized in Figure 2.
 
Vetsci 09 00017 g002
Figure 2. An example of incorporation of a simulation model within a case-based scenario rather than a practical class only using a decision-making algorithm.
  • Psychomotor activity within the case-solving. For example, use of simulation models rather than only presenting a case for solving.
    ○ Simulation in a variety of forms should be utilized as much as possible, including but not restricted to [48][49][50][51][52]:
    ■ High-fidelity examination simulators;
    ■ Single-task models (e.g., skin suturing model, model for venipuncture);
    ■ Standardized patient encounters;
    ■ Virtual reality models (e.g., ‘haptic cow/horse’).
  • Day One competencies (graduate attributes) addressed. Learners prefer seeing practice that is closer to what they will be seeing in their future clinical practice. Therefore, experiential learning should include diverse cases, particularly those that are common in general practice [8][14]][32][33]. Currently, veterinary instructors rarely, if ever, receive official training in clinical teaching, and there are no standardized requirements. This has been identified as an important gap in both veterinary [34][35] and human medical education [10][32][35][36]]. However, it is recognized that general training may not be attractive or satisfying for veterinary clinical educators. Discipline teaching is preferred [38][40]. Indeed, some schools have developed discipline-specific, context-relevant partial programs to complete the clinical instructor development program [40], including the school at which we teach.
  • . Learners prefer community-based clinical encounters, but with this approach only, there is often a lack of continuity of care. Thus, a variety of teaching settings are the preferred option.
  • Official recognition of clinical instructors
  • . Official recognition of clinical instructors may take the form of being given title-holder status or, even better, a special qualification as a clinical instructor, after completing a specified training course/module/curriculum [26]. Training can be managed at departmental level, and it is easy to achieve.
  • Elements of ‘teach-others’. ‘Teaching’ others significantly increased knowledge retention and capacity to implement experience from one-to-another clinical situation in the future [21][25][47]. Teach-others learning may be used during discussion with the client, when implementing peer-assisted learning [9],(Figure 3). Teach-or utilizing mini-lecturethers learning may be used during discussionsn with the client, when implementing peer-assisted learning [219]. Indeed, peer-assisted learning may also be a valuable tool for feedback on performance, frequently accepted as less confronting than when provided by the clinical instructoror utilizing mini-lecture discussions
  • Promotion and career advancement of clinical instructors
  • . The possibility of promotion of clinical instructors within a university setting is limited
  • [11][32][41]. This is often due to the lack of a research component by many of the clinical instructors [42
  • Clinical teaching skills of instructors;
  • Teaching settings;
  • Time spent per site, and in total, on experiential learning.

3.1. Clinical Teaching Skills of Instructors

  • Training of instructors in both delivery of clinical teaching and pedagogy-based approaches. Trained clinical instructors are better at delivering clinical teaching and are usually more satisfied [5][10][[37][38]. Veterinary schools should provide opportunities to all professional staff for training in education, particularly staff delivering clinical teaching. In some geographical areas, on-line courses in general education become attractive [38][39
  • ]
  • [43][44]. Promotion is primarily managed at the university, not departmental, level using the same rigid requirements as traditional academics. This makes the recognition by promotion and career advancements of clinical instructors more difficult and limited [41]. Therefore, for promotion and career advancement of clinical instructors, universities must consider having a special track for clinical instructors in veterinary medicine. Indeed, career progression is important also in partner clinics and this is an important area that needs to be addressed by the industry.

3.2. Strategies to Improve Clinical Teaching in Different Teaching Settings

3.2.1. Traditional Academic Settings

Even the best approach to clinical teaching, in isolation, cannot replace clinical exposure. The difference between doing things and trying to simulate all that may happen during a clinical encounter should be considered. Hence, traditional academic settings should be utilized to facilitate development of clinical reasoning skills in conjunction with clinical exposure [11][45].
Case-based learning (CBL). The CBL is a clinical teaching method usually applicable for earlier stages of the learner’s development. However, skillfully used, it is also suitable in advanced learning. The advantage of the CBL is it is a less time-consuming approach to delivery of clinical teaching. The role of the clinical instructor, who is the ‘expert in the field’ is to correct, direct, and provide feedback [46].
  • [
  • 921]. Indeed, peer-assisted learning may also be a valuable tool for feedback on performance, frequently accepted as less confronting than when provided by the clinical instructor [229][4622]. It is worth noting that peer-based feedback only is not preferred, as learners appreciate expert opinion on their performance and progress. Hence, a combination of peer- and expert-feedback is needed.[46]. It is worth noting that peer-based feedback only is not preferred, as learners appreciate expert opinion on their performance and progress. Hence, a combination of peer- and expert-feedback is needed.

Vetsci 09 00017 g003

Figure 3.
The effect of teaching method on the retention of knowledge by learners demonstrating the need of a component of ‘teach others’ by learners in the clinical teaching. Adapted from
[4847]. AV—Audio-visual.
. AV—Audio-visual.
  • Psychomotor activity within the case-solving. For example, use of simulation models rather than only presenting a case for solving.
    ○ Simulation in a variety of forms should be utilized as much as possible, including but not restricted to [49][50][51][52][53]:
    ■ High-fidelity examination simulators;
    ■ Single-task models (e.g., skin suturing model, model for venipuncture);
    ■ Standardized patient encounters;
    ■ Virtual reality models (e.g., ‘haptic cow/horse’).
  • Team-based learning (TBL)
  • . Although TBL is a teaching method aimed at delivery of clinical teaching to early stages of development of learners in veterinary and medical sciences, it is assumed to be very suitable for clinical teaching in advanced years
  • [
  • 23][46][5453]. Team-based learning clinical teaching has been praised for three elements of clinical teaching, inclusion of development of clinical reasoning, team work from learner’s perspective [22], and time efficiency. It usually consists of in-contact activities of 2 h duration, but preparation time is required. For efficacy, TBL should be properly executed, namely learners should be carefully allocated to groups. There should be a proper pre-activity preparation (e.g., readings, pre-recorded lectures) and individual- and group-level testing should be incorporated (i.e., readiness assurance tests), followed by immediate feedback on performance. Use of the four S approach (significant problem, same problem, specific choice and simultaneous reporting) during the activity is relevant for reflection, clinical reasoning and problem-solving [22][46][5453][5554]
  • Combination of any of the above proposed strategies.

4. Conclusions

HFrom the literature reviewed, herein conclude that effective veterinary clinical teaching of graduates is central to post graduate clinical success. Herein have presented various clinical settings and strategies affecting clinical teaching and learning and recommend that, as far as possible, the employment of a mixture of strategies (blended delivery) will enhance student satisfaction and clinical success. Indeed, delivery of clinical teaching must be cognizant of animal welfare requirements and the 3 Rs (Reduction, Refinement and Replacement) of using animals in research and teaching [5655]. Herein have proposed some strategies for clinical teaching but learner satisfaction and employer opinion, as well as instructor and learner wellbeing with the incorporation of a blended clinical teaching approach, are yet to be measured (e.g., using anonymous on-line surveys or targeted interviews).

References

  1. Oaks, J.L.; Gilbert, M.; Virani, M.Z.; Watson, R.T.; Meteyer, C.U.; Rideout, B.A.; Shivaprasad, H.L.; Ahmed, S.; Iqbal Chaudhry, M.J.; Arshad, M.; et al. Diclofenac residues as the cause of vulture population decline in pakistan. Nature 2004, 427, 630–633.
  2. Ogada, D.L.; Keesing, F.; Virani, M.Z. Dropping dead: Causes and consequences of vulture population declines worldwide: Worldwide decline of vultures. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2012, 1249, 57–71.
  3. Carr, A.N.; Kirkwood, R.N.; Petrovski, K.R. Using the five-microskills method in veterinary medicine clinical teaching. Vet. Sci. 2021, 8, 89.
  4. Conner, B.J.; Behar-Horenstein, L.S.; Su, Y. Comparison of two clinical teaching models for veterinary emergency and critical care instruction. J. Vet. Med. Educ. 2016, 43, 58–63.
  5. Boerboom, T.B.B.; Dolmans, D.H.J.M.; Jaarsma, A.D.C.; Muijtjens, A.M.M.; Van Beukelen, P.; Scherpbier, A.J.J.A. Exploring the validity and reliability of a questionnaire for evaluating veterinary clinical teachers’ supervisory skills during clinical rotations. Med. Teach. 2011, 33, e84–e91.
  6. Ash, J.K.; Walters, L.K.; Prideaux, D.J.; Wilson, I.G. The context of clinical teaching and learning in australia. Med. J. Aust. 2012, 196, 475.
  7. Parsell, G.; Bligh, J. Recent perspectives on clinical teaching. Med. Educ. 2001, 35, 409–414.
  8. Molgaard, L.K.; Chaney, K.P.; Bok, H.G.J.; Read, E.K.; Hodgson, J.L.; Salisbury, S.K.; Rush, B.R.; Ilkiw, J.E.; May, S.A.; Danielson, J.A.; et al. Development of core entrustable professional activities linked to a competency-based veterinary education framework. Med. Teach. 2019, 41, 1404–1410.
  9. Sevenhuysen, S.; Skinner, E.H.; Farlie, M.K.; Raitman, L.; Nickson, W.; Keating, J.L.; Maloney, S.; Molloy, E.; Haines, T.P. Educators and students prefer traditional clinical education to a peer-assisted learning model, despite similar student performance outcomes: A randomised trial. J. Physiother. 2014, 60, 209–216.
  10. McNeil, B.; Jakubisin Konicki, A. Insights on the clinical teaching needs of nurse practitioner preceptors. J. Nurse Pract. 2021, 17, 105–111.
  11. Stark, P. Teaching and learning in the clinical setting: A qualitative study of the perceptions of students and teachers. Med. Educ. 2003, 37, 975–982.
  12. Masters, P.A.; Nester, C. A study of primary care teaching comparing academic and community-based settings. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2001, 16, 9–13.
  13. Mor, S.M.; Norris, J.M.; Bosward, K.L.; Toribio, J.A.L.M.L.; Ward, M.P.; Gongora, J.; Vost, M.; Higgins, P.C.; McGreevy, P.D.; White, P.J.; et al. One health in our backyard: Design and evaluation of an experiential learning experience for veterinary medical students. One Health 2018, 5, 57–64.
  14. Horner, P.; Hunukumbure, D.; Fox, J.; Leedham-Green, K. Outpatient learning perspectives at a uk hospital. Clin. Teach. 2020, 17, 680–687.
  15. McKenzie, A.; Allister, R.; Humphrey, D.; Moore, K.; Greenberg, K.; Greenberg, N. An evaluation of a veterinary-specific mental health service. Occup. Med. 2020, 70, 169–175.
  16. Nahar, V.K.; Davis, R.E.; Dunn, C.; Layman, B.; Johnson, E.C.; Dascanio, J.J.; Johnson, J.W.; Sharma, M. The prevalence and demographic correlates of stress, anxiety, and depression among veterinary students in the southeastern united states. Res. Vet. Sci. 2019, 125, 370–373.
  17. Kolb, D.A. Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development; FT Press: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 2014.
  18. Cantillon, P.; Wood, D.; Yardley, S. ABC of Learning and Teaching in Medicine, 3rd ed.; Wiley Blackwell: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2017.
  19. Murad, M.H.; Coto-Yglesias, F.; Varkey, P.; Prokop, L.J.; Murad, A.L. The effectiveness of self-directed learning in health professions education: A systematic review. Med. Educ. 2010, 44, 1057–1068.
  20. Otto, P.B. Finding an answer in questioning strategies. Sci. Child. 1991, 28, 44–47.
  21. Taylor, D.C.M.; Hamdy, H. Adult learning theories: Implications for learning and teaching in medical education: AMEE Guide No. 83. Med. Teach. 2013, 35, e1561–e1572.
  22. Burgess, A.; Bleasel, J.; Haq, I.; Roberts, C.; Garsia, R.; Robertson, T.; Mellis, C. Team-based learning (tbl) in the medical curriculum: Better than pbl? BMC Med. Educ. 2017, 17, 243.
  23. Bate, E.; Hommes, J.; Duvivier, R.; Taylor, D.C.M. Problem-based learning (PBL): Getting the most out of your students—Their roles and responsibilities: AMEE Guide No. 84. Med. Teach. 2014, 36, 1–12.
  24. Ownby, K.; Schumann, R.; Dune, L.; Kohne, D. A comparison of a traditional clinical experience to a precepted clinical experience for baccalaureate-seeking nursing students in their second semester. Nurs. Res. Pract. 2012, 2012, 276506.
  25. Lockyer, J.M.; Hodgson, C.S.; Lee, T.; Faremo, S.; Fisher, B.; Dafoe, W.; Yiu, V.; Violato, C. Clinical teaching as part of continuing professional development: Does teaching enhance clinical performance? Med. Teach. 2016, 38, 815–822.
  26. Claeys, M.; Deplaecie, M.; Vanderplancke, T.; Delbaere, I.; Myny, D.; Beeckman, D.; Verhaeghe, S. The difference in learning culture and learning performance between a traditional clinical placement, a dedicated education unit and work-based learning. Nurse Educ. Today 2015, 35, e70–e77.
  27. Bowker, M.H. Teaching students to ask questions instead of answering them. Thought Action 2010, 26, 127–134.
  28. Nguyen, K.A.; Lucas, C.; Leadbeatter, D. Student generation and peer review of examination questions in the dental curriculum: Enhancing student engagement and learning. Eur. J. Dent. Educ. 2020, 24, 548–558.
  29. Hendricson, W.D.; Andrieu, S.C.; Chadwick, G.; Chmar, J.E.; Cole, J.R.; George, M.C.; Glickman, G.N.; Glover, J.F.; Goldberg, J.S.; Haden, N.K.; et al. Educational strategies associated with development of problem-solving, critical thinking, and self-directed learning. J. Dent. Educ. 2006, 70, 925–936.
  30. Petrovski, K.; McArthur, M. The art and science of consultations in bovine medicine: Use of modified calgary—Cambridge guides. Maced. Vet. Rev. 2015, 38, 137–147.
  31. Adelung, M.; Prol, L.; Calabrese, J.; Guenther, L.A.; Copes, A. Teaching the teacher: Improving supervisory roles for clinical educators using interprofessional workshops. J. Allied Health 2021, 50, 9–13.
  32. Ramani, S. Twelve tips to promote excellence in medical teaching. Med. Teach. 2006, 28, 19–23.
  33. O’Toole, J.K.; Klein, M.D.; McLinden, D.; Sucharew, H.; DeWitt, T.G. A pilot study of the creation and implementation of a teaching development assessment tool. J. Grad. Med. Educ. 2015, 7, 638–642.
  34. Humm, K.R.; May, S.A. Clinical reasoning by veterinary students in the first-opinion setting: Is it encouraged? Is it practiced? J. Vet. Med. Educ. 2018, 45, 156–162.
  35. Steinert, Y.; Mann, K.V. Faculty development: Principles and practices. J. Vet. Med. Educ. 2006, 33, 317–324.
  36. Boillat, M.; Bethune, C.; Ohle, E.; Razack, S.; Steinert, Y. Twelve tips for using the objective structured teaching exercise for faculty development. Med. Teach. 2012, 34, 269–273.
  37. Houston, T.K.; Ferenchick, G.S.; Clark, J.M.; Bowen, J.L.; Branch, W.T.; Alguire, P.; Esham, R.H.; Clayton, C.P.; Kern, D.E. Faculty development needs. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2004, 19, 375–379.
  38. Burgess, A.; van Diggele, C.; Mellis, C. Faculty development for junior health professionals. Clin. Teach. 2019, 16, 189–196.
  39. Burgess, A.; Bansal, A.; Clarke, A.; Ayton, T.; van Diggele, C.; Clark, T.; Matar, E. Clinical teacher training for health professionals: From blended to online and (maybe) back again? Clin. Teach. 2021, 18, 630–640.
  40. Marschner, C.B.; Dahl, K.; Langebæk, R. Creating a pedagogical development program for veterinary clinical teachers: A discipline-specific, context-relevant, bottom-up initiative. J. Vet. Med. Educ. 2021, 48, 129–135.
  41. Jacobs, C.K.; Everard, K.M.; Cronholm, P.F. Promotion of clinical educators: A critical need in academic family medicine. Fam. Med. 2020, 52, 631–634.
  42. Deiorio, N.M.; Carney, P.A.; Kahl, L.E.; Bonura, E.M.; Juve, A.M. Coaching: A new model for academic and career achievement. Med. Educ. Online 2016, 21, 33480.
  43. McAndrew, M.; Motwaly, S.; Kamens, T.E. Long-term follow-up of a dental faculty development program. J. Dent. Educ. 2013, 77, 716–722.
  44. Ranieri, V.; Barratt, H.; Fulop, N.; Rees, G. Factors that influence career progression among postdoctoral clinical academics: A scoping review of the literature. BMJ Open 2016, 6, e013523.
  45. Hashemiparast, M.; Negarandeh, R.; Theofanidis, D. Exploring the barriers of utilizing theoretical knowledge in clinical settings: A qualitative study. Int. J. Nurs. Sci. 2019, 6, 399–405.
  46. Burgess, A.; Matar, E.; Roberts, C.; Haq, I.; Wynter, L.; Singer, J.; Kalman, E.; Bleasel, J. Scaffolding medical student knowledge and skills: Team-based learning (TBL) and case-based learning (CBL). BMC Med. Educ. 2021, 21, 238.
  47. Churchill, R.; Godinho, S.; Johnson, N.F.; Keddie, A.; Letts, W.J.; Lowe, K.; Mackay, J.; McGill, M.; Moss, J.; Nagel, M.C.; et al. Teaching: Making a Difference, 4th ed.; Wiley: Milton, Australia, 2019.
  48. Churchill, R.; Godinho, S.; Johnson, N.F.; Keddie, A.; Letts, W.J.; Lowe, K.; Mackay, J.; McGill, M.; Moss, J.; Nagel, M.C.; et al. Teaching: Making a Difference, 4th ed.; Wiley: Milton, Australia, 2019.Issenberg, S.B.; McGaghie, W.C.; Petrusa, E.R.; Gordon, D.L.; Scalese, R.J. Features and uses of high-fidelity medical simulations that lead to effective learning: A beme systematic review. Med. Teach. 2005, 27, 10–28.
  49. Issenberg, S.B.; McGaghie, W.C.; Petrusa, E.R.; Gordon, D.L.; Scalese, R.J. Features and uses of high-fidelity medical simulations that lead to effective learning: A beme systematic review. Med. Teach. 2005, 27, 10–28. Issenberg, S.B.; Scalese, R.J. Simulation in health care education. Perspect. Biol. Med. 2008, 51, 31–46.
  50. Issenberg, S.B.; Scalese, R.J. Simulation in health care education. Perspect. Biol. Med. 2008, 51, 31–46. Multak, N.; Newell, K.; Spear, S.; Scalese, R.J.; Barry Issenberg, S. A multi-institutional study using simulation to teach cardiopulmonary physical examination and diagnosis skills to physician assistant students. J. Physician Assist. Educ. 2015, 26, 70–76.
  51. Multak, N.; Newell, K.; Spear, S.; Scalese, R.J.; Barry Issenberg, S. A multi-institutional study using simulation to teach cardiopulmonary physical examination and diagnosis skills to physician assistant students. J. Physician Assist. Educ. 2015, 26, 70–76. Scalese, R.J.; Issenberg, S.B. Effective use of simulations for the teaching and acquisition of veterinary professional and clinical skills. J. Vet. Med. Educ. 2005, 32, 461–467.
  52. Scalese, R.J.; Issenberg, S.B. Effective use of simulations for the teaching and acquisition of veterinary professional and clinical skills. J. Vet. Med. Educ. 2005, 32, 461–467. Ferreira, M.F.; de Araújo Sampaio Lima, R.; de Souza Amaral, R. Practising with an obstetric box and a dummy improves students’ confidence in performing obstetric procedures involving large animals. Vet. Rec. 2021, 188, e57.
  53. Ferreira, M.F.; de Araújo Sampaio Lima, R.; de Souza Amaral, R. Practising with an obstetric box and a dummy improves students’ confidence in performing obstetric procedures involving large animals. Vet. Rec. 2021, 188, e57. Haidet, P.; Levine, R.E.; Parmelee, D.X.; Crow, S.; Kennedy, F.; Kelly, P.A.; Perkowski, L.; Michaelsen, L.; Richards, B.F. Perspective: Guidelines for reporting team-based learning activities in the medical and health sciences education literature. Acad. Med. 2012, 87, 292–299.
  54. Haidet, P.; Levine, R.E.; Parmelee, D.X.; Crow, S.; Kennedy, F.; Kelly, P.A.; Perkowski, L.; Michaelsen, L.; Richards, B.F. Perspective: Guidelines for reporting team-based learning activities in the medical and health sciences education literature. Acad. Med. 2012, 87, 292–299. Ormandy, E. Team-based learning within the veterinary curriculum. Dev. Acad. Pract. 2021, 2021, 1–5.
  55. Ormandy, E. Team-based learning within the veterinary curriculum. Dev. Acad. Pract. 2021, 2021, 1–5. Russell, W.M.S.; Burch, R.L. The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique; Methuen: London, UK, 1959.
  56. Russell, W.M.S.; Burch, R.L. The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique; Methuen: London, UK, 1959.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
ScholarVision Creations
Feedback