The production of microalgal biomass is highly influenced by the suitability of microalgae strains, CO2, light, pH, culture system, temperature, and nutrients. The sources of CO2 and nutrients for microalgal cultivation can be flue gas and wastewater, respectively. Therefore, many studies have investigated whether flue gas and wastewater can be integrated with microalgal cultivations, to achieve not only CO2 reduction, but also CO2 reuse for microalgal biomass conversion to produce biofuels. Flue gas and wastewater can also be treated by microalgal cultivations to obtain environmentally friendly and health-friendly effects. In the process of microalgae cultivation, one single factor does not affect the growth of microalgae; it is often the interaction of multiple factors. Therefore, keeping the performance of long-term and stable microalgal cultivation will determine the microalgal growth, especially outdoor cultivation.
Tolerance Characteristics | Microalgae | Gas Aeration | Temp. (°C) | Maximum Biomass Conc. (g L−1) | Biomass Productivity (g L−1 d−1) |
CO2 Fixation Efficiency 1 (g L−1 d−1) | Country 2 | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High-CO2 tolerant | Chlorella sp. MTF-15 | Flue gas 4 | 26 | 2.52 | 0.515 | 0.942 | TW | [4] |
Chlorella sp. AE20 | 10% CO2 | 28 | 3.22 | 0.293 | 0.536 | CN | [15] | |
20% CO2 | 3.13 | 0.285 | 0.522 | |||||
30% CO2 | 3.02 | 0.275 | 0.503 | |||||
Chlorella vulgaris NIOCCV | 5% CO2 | 28 | 0.674 | 0.111 | 0.203 | IN | [16] | |
10% CO2 | 1.58 | 0.265 | 0.485 | |||||
20% CO2 | 0.976 | 0.163 | 0.298 | |||||
High-CO |
Wastewater Source | Microalgae | COD 1 (mg L−1) | TN 1 (mg L−1) | TP 1 (mg L−1) | Biomass Productivity (g L−1 d−1) | CO2 Fixation Efficiency 2 (g L−1 d−1) | Lipid (%) | Lipid Productivity 3 (g L−1 d−1) | Country 4 | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Agricultural wastewater | ||||||||||
Raw dairy | Chlorella sp. | 2593 | 283 | 116 | 0.261 | 0.478 | - | - | CN | [38] |
Anaerobically treated piggery | Chlorella vulgaris CY5 | 377 | 287 | 28 | 0.281 | 0.514 | 19.6 | 0.055 | TW | [39] |
Piggery | Chlorella sp. GD | 490 | 550 | 20 | 0.681 | 1.246 | 21.8 | 0.148 | TW | [35] |
Aquaculture | 121 | 234 | 15 | 1.296 | 2.372 | 21.3 | 0.276 | TW | [5] | |
2 | ||||||||||
and CH | ||||||||||
4 tolerant | Chlorella sp. MB-9 | 20% CO2 and 80% CH4 | ||||||||
Swine | 26 | 2.35 | 0.243 | 0.445 | TW | [ | 17 | ] | ||
CO2 tolerant | Chlorella sp. GD | Boiler flue gas 3 | 26 | 6.54 | 0.892 | 1.632 | TW | [5] | ||
High-CO2 tolerant | Chlorella sp. LAMB 31 | 40% CO2 | 26 | ~0.9 | 0.079 | 0.144 | CN | [18] | ||
High-CO2 and thermotolerant | Chlorella vulgaris ESP-31, 283 and 359 | Simulated flue gas (25% CO2, 80–90 ppm SO2, 90–100 ppm NO) | 40 | 1.91 (283)/1.99 (359) | 0.73 (283)/0.89 (359) | 1.336 (283)/1.629 (359) | TW | [14] | ||
Alkali-tolerant (pH 6–10) |
Chlorella sp. AT1 | 10% CO2 | 26 | 5.08 | 1.010 | 1.848 | TW | [19] | ||
Alkali-tolerant (pH > 10) | Chlorella sorokiniana SLA-04 |
Air | 20 | 0.9 | 0.059 | 0.108 | US | [7] | ||
Air | 20–25 | 0.74 | 0.046 | 0.078 | [8] | |||||
Thermotolerant | Chlorella pyrenoidosa M18 | Air | 37 | 4.65 | 0.931 | 1.702 | IN | [10] | ||
Chlorella pyrenoidosa M24 | 4.11 | 0.822 | 1.504 | |||||||
Chlorella sp. M4 | 6% CO2 | 40 | 4.2 | 1.05 | 1.922 | TW | [11] | |||
Chlorella pyrenoidosa M18 | Air | 45 | 1.69 | 0.338 | 0.619 | IN | [13] | |||
Chlorella sorokiniana | 10% CO2 | 37 | 1.16 | 0.232 | 0.425 | IN | [12] | |||
15% CO2 | 1.05 | 0.211 | 0.384 | |||||||
5% CO2 and 80 ppm NO | 1.27 | 0.254 | 0.465 |
Microalgae | Flue Gas Source | CO2 (%) | Biomass Productivity (g L−1 d−1) | CO2 Fixation Efficiency 1 (g L−1 d−1) | Lipid (%) | Lipid Productivity 2 (g L−1 d−1) | Country 3 | References | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chlorella sp. MTF-15 | Coke oven | 13 | 0.528 | 0.966 | 21.5 | 0.614 | TW | [4] | |||||||||||
25 | 0.515 | 0.942 | 26.4 | 0.666 | |||||||||||||||
Hot stove | 13 | 0.449 | 0.822 | 33.8 | 0.866 | ||||||||||||||
26 | 0.314 | 0.575 | 35.2 | 0.591 | |||||||||||||||
Power plant | 12 | 0.423 | 0.774 | 36.3 | 0.792 | ||||||||||||||
24 | 0.342 | 0.626 | 41.6 | 0.633 | |||||||||||||||
Chlorella sorokiniana | Industrial flue gas | 16 | 0.231 | 0.423 | 21.1 | 0.049 | IN | [23] | |||||||||||
Chlorella sp. KR-1 | Coal-fired flue gas | 13 | 0.561 | 1.027 | 29.9 | 0.168 | KR | [24] | |||||||||||
Chlorella vulgaris | UTEX-265 | 1481 | 307 | 4.3 | 0.247 | 0.452 | 27.1 | 0.067 | KR | [40] | |||||||||
Piggery | Chlorella sorokiniana AK-1 | 1500–4500 | 500–700 | 150–250 | 0.55 | 1.006 | - | - | TW | [45] | |||||||||
Livestock waste | Chlorella sp. | 2000 | 222 | 103 | 0.289 | 0.529 | 36.3 | 0.105 | CN | [41] | Chlorella sp. | Coal burning | 5 | 0.273 | 0.500 | 8.69 | 0.024 | ||
Municipal wastewater | IN | [ | 28 | ] | |||||||||||||||
Chlorella fusca LEB 111 | Coal power plant | 10 | 0.111 | 0.203 | 15.5 | 0.017 | BR | [25 | |||||||||||
Centrate | Chlorella sorokiniana UTEX1230 | - | ] | ||||||||||||||||
53 | 9.4 | 0.083 | 0.152 | 9.4 | 0.008 | GB | [ | 48 | ] | Chlorella vulgaris | Coal burning boiler | 6 | 0.312 | 0.571 | 23.2 | ||||
Domestic | Chlorella vulgaris | 0.074 | IN | [ | 29 | ] | |||||||||||||
142 | 56 | 9 | 0.054 | 0.099 | 21.5 | 0.012 | US | [ | Chlorella sp. GD | Boiler flue gas | 8 | 1.296 | 2.372 | 21.7 | 0.214 | TW | [5] | ||
56 | ] | ||||||||||||||||||
Chlorella minutissima | 0.049 | 0.090 | 22.9 | 0.011 | Chlorella sp. | Flue gas | 30 | 0.145 | |||||||||||
Municipal | Chlorella vulgaris | 0.265 | SAG 211-11b | 24.7 | 0.036 | ZA | [ | 22] | |||||||||||
2175 | 840 | 10 | 0.144 | 0.264 | 23 | 0.033 | FI | [ | 46 | ] | Chlorella sp. Cv | Simulated flue gas | 15 | 0.53 | 0.969 | ND | ND | CN | [21] |
Chlorella vulgaris | Power plant | 12 | 0.502 | 0.919 | 40.1 | 0.201 | ES | [26] | |||||||||||
Chlorella sp. C2 | Power plant | 3 | 0.314 | 0.575 | 31.5 | 0.099 | CN | [31] |
Secondary | ||||||||||
Chlorella vulgaris | ||||||||||
UTEX 26 | ||||||||||
131 | ||||||||||
112 | ||||||||||
35 | ||||||||||
0.078 | ||||||||||
0.143 | 8.7 | 0.021 | MX | [ | 49 | ] | ||||
Chlorella vulgaris CICESE | 0.105 | 0.192 | 20.2 | 0.025 | ||||||
Centrate | Chlorella vulgaris | 513 | 803 | 32 | 0.071 | 0.130 | 29.6 | 0.021 | CN | [50] |
Municipal (osmosis concentrate) |
Chlorella vulgaris | 164 | 43.2 | 13.1 | 0.32 | 0.585 | - | - | AU | [47] |
Industrial wastewater | ||||||||||
Meat processing | Chlorella sp. UM6151 | 2100 | 212 | 54 | 0.171 | 0.313 | 17.5 | 0.029 | US | [52] |
Food | Chlorella vulgaris | 341 | - | - | 0.207 | 0.379 | 31 | 0.064 | CN | [53] |
Pulp and paper | Chlorella vulgaris SAG 211-11b | 905 | 350 | 28 | 0.208 | 0.381 | 21.7 | 0.045 | FI | [46] |
Alcohol and starch processing | Chlorella pyrenoidosa | 3599 | 334 | 39 | 0.376 | 0.688 | 19.7 | 0.074 | CN | [54] |
Tofu whey | Chlorella pyrenoidosa FACHB-9 | - | 592 | 49 | 0.283 | 0.518 | 17.5 | 0.049 | CN | [55] |
Microalgae | Cultivation System | Cultivation Scale (L) | CO2 (%) | Maximum Biomass Conc. (g L−1) | Biomass Productivity (g L−1 d−1) | CO2 Fixation Efficiency 1 (g L−1 d−1) | Country 2 | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chlorella sp. MTF-15 | Column-type PBR | 1 | 12.5 (1/2 flue gas) | 2.855 | 0.528 | 0.966 | TW | [4] |
1200 | 1.555 | 0.197 | 0.361 | |||||
Chlorella vulgaris | Porous air-lift PBR | 16 | 0.03 (air) | 0.095 | 0.004 | 0.174 | HK | [85] |
Loop air-lift PBR | 0.126 | 0.007 | 0.231 | |||||
Bubbling PBR | 0.783 | 0.054 | 1.433 | |||||
Chlorella sp. GD | Column-type PBR | 1 | 2 | 4.813 | 0.870 | 1.592 | TW | [35] |
8 (boiler flue gas) | 4.921 | 1.296 | 2.333 | [5] | ||||
Chlorella vulgaris | Plastic bottle | 15 | 4 | 3.151 | 0.378 | 0.711 | PL | [86] |
Chlorella vulgaris | Flat-plate PBR | 1.6 | 5 | 2.303 | 0.551 | 1.008 | CN | [57] |
Chlorella vulgaris | Bubble column PBR | 56 | 0.03 (air) | 0.962 | 0.043 | 0.079 | MY | [87] |
Chlorella pyrenoidosa | Open raceway pond | 8000 | 99.5 | 0.927 | 0.114 | 0.214 | CN | [84] |
Chlorella vulgaris | Coiled tubular tree PBR | 1.2 | 0.03 (air) | 0.552 | 0.084 | 0.153 | CA | [88] |
Chlorella sorokiniana | Flat panel PBR | 90 | 5 | 1.913 | 0.091 | 0.167 | US | [89] |
Chlorella vulgaris | Pilot-scale PBR | 150 | Without aeration | 2.211 | 0.198 | 0.362 | CN | [90] |
Chlorella sp. AT1 | Column-type PBR | 1 | 10 | 7.372 | 1.011 | 1.851 | TW | [19] |
PBRs/Raceway circulating system | 288 | 2 | 2.561 | 0.321 | 0.588 | TW | [59] | |
528 | 1.963 | 0.237 | 0.434 | |||||
1008 | 1.052 | 0.107 | 0.195 | |||||
3600 | 1.686 | 0.150 | 0.275 | |||||
6600 | 1.257 | 0.109 | 0.199 | |||||
Chlorella sp. HS2 | Flat panel PBR | 2 | 1 | 3.811 | 0.543 | 1.021 | KR | [91] |
Chlorella vulgaris UTEX 26 | Raceway | 1100 | 0.03 (air) | 0.25 | 20–26 (g m−2 d−1 for 65 days culture) | - | MX | [75] |
Chlorella pyrenoidosa PY-ZU1 | Pond-tubular hybrid PBR | <5 (a model system) | 15 | 2.3 | 0.770 | 1.409 | CN | [82] |
Chlorella vulgaris | Raceway with computational fluid dynamics | 20 | 50 (mix with air and pure CO2 gas) | 5.2 | 11.89 (g m−2 d−1, 14 cm depth of raceway) | - | TW | [76] |
Chlorella vulgaris CCAP 211/11B | Membrane photobioreactor | 40 | 15 | 1.01 | 0.166 | 0.704 | IT | [83] |