To adapt to the trends in wine styles, and the effect of climate change on wine alcohol content, different techniques have been used at the various stages of winemaking, among which the physical dealcoholization techniques, particularly membrane separation (nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, evaporative perstraction, and pervaporation) and thermal distillation (vacuum distillation and spinning cone column), have shown promising results and hence are being used for commercial production.
Stage of Wine Production | Ethanol Removal Process | Technology | Alcohol Content Reduction | References | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre-fermentation | Reduction of fermentable sugars | Viticultural practices (leaf area reduction, pre-harvest irrigation, application of growth regulators; reduction in photosynthetic activity) | Up to 2% v/v |
[27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45] |
Wine Type | Dealcoholization Process | Alcohol Reduction | Reported Effects on Phenolic Composition | Reference | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Co (% v/v) | Cf (% v/v) | ||||||||||||||||
Red wine |
Dealcoholization Process | Wine Type | Membrane | Operating Mode/Conditions | Alcohol Reduction | Volatile Composition | Sampling and Analytical Method | Reference | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Co (% v/v) | Cf (% v/v) | Volatile Compounds | Estimated Average Losses (%) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
NF | 12.0 | 6.0–4.0 | Reduction in wine alcohol volume by a factor of 4 leads to 2.5–3 times more anthocyanins and resveratrol in the wine concentrates | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
NF | White model wine |
, |
TORAY–UB70 | Batch retentate–recycling mode | T = 15 | P = 10 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[ | ] | [138] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
12.0 | 8.4 | Diethyl succinate | 2–phenyl–ethanol | cis –3–hexenol | Isovaleric acid | 2.4 | 2.9 | 12.6 | 11.7 | HS/SPME–GC/MS |
[130] |
[140] |
Early fruit harvest and blends with mature harvest | Cabernet Sauvignon–Merlot–Tempranillo red wine |
Dealcoholization Process | Wine Type | Membrane | Operating Mode/Conditions | Alcohol Reduction | Findings on Sensory Characteristics | Reference | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Co (% v/v) | Cf (% v/v) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
NF | Red Wine | Polyamide, NF97, NF99 HF Alfa | Laval | T = 30 | P = 16 | 12.0 | 9.1 | Increase in astringency and unbalanced aroma and taste due to alcohol reduction |
[189] |
[33] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Up to 3% v/v | RO | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
RO | [ |
Syrah red wine | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
12.7 | 4.0–2.0 | ns | T = ns | P = ns | No significant differences were observed in total anthocyanins and phenolic compounds for both original and dealcoholized wines. Colour intensity increased by around 20% in dealcoholized wines (due to the concentration effect from the removal of ethanol as well as the retention of anthocyanins by the membrane), while the tonality diminished by around 15% | 12.7 |
[179] |
11.1–9.6 | Decrease in wine length in the mouth and increase in red fruits and then woody and blackcurrant perceptions (using TDS and attributed to alcohol reduction). Decrease in heat and sweetness intensity (attributed to alcohol reduction) and red fruit intensity (attributed to RO) |
[178] |
[189] |
Dilution of grape must | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Merlot red wine | Up to 7% v/v | ns |
[61,62[58,63],67[,6859][60][61,69],70,71,72,73] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
P = 17–29 | 12.0 | 8.4 | Diethyl succinate | 2–phenyl–ethanol | cis –3–hexenol | Isovaleric acid | 0.6–1.6 | 2.5–3.5 | 7.8–11 | 11.9–18.1 | HS/SPME–GC/MS |
[130] |
[140] |
Filtration of must | Up to 5% v/v | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Red Wine | Polyamide, NF9, Alfa | Laval | T = 30 | P = 16 | 12.0 |
[229] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
9.1 | Total volatile aroma** | 30.0 | GC–FID |
[189] |
[33] |
Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | RO | 14.8 | T = ns | P = ns | 13.8–12.8 | 13.4 | The total phenolic index, total proanthocyanidins, and percentages of procyanidins, prodelphinidins, and galloylation of partially dealcoholized wines and the control wine remains almost unchanged and did not differ. Control wine and partially dealcoholized wines have statistically similar total anthocyanin concentrations with no observed color differences between these wines | 11.8–10.2 | [22] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
RO | Model wine |
Decrease om wine length in the mouth and increase in astringent and then of fruity perceptions (using TDS and attributed to alcohol reduction). Decrease in heat and texture intensity (attributed to alcohol reduction) and increase in acid intensity (attributed to RO) |
[178] |
[189] |
Grenache–Carignan red wine | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Red Wine | RO | Cellulose acetate, CA995PE | 73] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
16.2 | T = 30◦C | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Syrah red wine | P = 16 | 15.1–14.1 | The total phenolic index and total proanthocyanidins of partially dealcoholized wines and the control wine remain almost unchanged and do not differ. Slight but statistically significant differences were observed in the percentages of procyanidins, prodelphinidins, and galloylation during alcohol reduction. Total anthocyanin concentrations of partially dealcoholized wines were statistically significantly higher than that of the control wine | 12.0 |
[ |
8.4 |
22] |
Total aroma** | ns90.0 | T = ns | P = ns | 13.4 | 11.4–7.9GC–FID | Decrease in persistence, complexity, number of aromas and increase in balance, harmony, and familiarity. Decrease in familiarity and harmony after 4% v/v reduction |
[201] |
[ |
[189] |
[33] |
244] |
Addition of enzyme (glucose oxidase) | Up to 4% v/v | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
OD/EP | RO membrane (100 DA) | white wine | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
T = 10 | P = ns | Time = 40 | PTFE hollow fiber (Teflon, Verona, Italy)13.2 | Qf = 0.2 | Qs = 0.2 | T = 20 | Time = ns | 9.0 | ns | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | Phenols | Lactones | * | 30.0 | 22.0 | 8.0 | 13.0 | 14.0 | Floral, fruity, and vegetable notes, as well as acidity, saltiness, and bitterness, were not significantly influenced. Decrease in wine body, persistence, and honey note. | SPME–GC/MS |
[191] |
[196] |
[138] |
[146] |
Fermentation | Reduction of alcohol production | Use of Non-Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeasts | Up to 2% v/v | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
OD/EP | Model wine | Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) | Memcor | Qf = 0.053 | Qs = 0.093 | T = 30 | Time = 60 |
[80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99][][110] |
[90,91,98100,99,100],101[101,102][102,103],104[,105,106103,107,108,109,110,111,112104 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Osmonics–SE |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | RO | 13.2 | 9.0 | Increase in total phenols and decrease in total anthocyanins during ethanol reduction in wine samples. Color intensity increases during ethanol removal |
[138] |
[146] |
],92 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Aglianico red wine | OD/EP | [ |
12.8 | 4.9–0.4 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Falanghina white wine | Liqui-Cel 0.5x1, PP hollow fiber | Qf = 0.07 | Qs = 0.14 | T = 10 | Time = 240 | 12.5 | ,95107,96][108][109],97[,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Higher amount of total phenols in dealcoholized wine samples compared to the original wine. Color intensity decreased slightly at the end of dealcoholization | 13.0 | 9.8–0.3 |
[180] |
[197] |
8.1 | Isoamyl alcohol | Ethyl acetate | 44.0 | 70.0 | Decrease in odor, sweetness, and body, resulting in unbalanced taste and overall unacceptable, with an unpleasant aftertaste | GC–FID |
[140] |
[36] |
[190] |
Use of modified yeast strains | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Aglianico red wine | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Falanghina white wineUp to 3.6% v/v | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Aglianico red wine | OD/EP |
[ |
Liqui–Cel 0.5 × 1, PP hollow fiber | Liqui-Cel Extra-flow, PP hollow fiber | ][112][,122113][],123114],124[115][116][117[,125118],126[119],127[120],128[,129121,130][122] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
15.4 | Qf = 0.583 | 13.5–10.8 | The alcohol removal process did not affect the content of vanillin reactive flavans and total phenolics. A loss of 49% of total monomeric anthocyanins was observed after dealcoholization while total anthocyanins remained almost unchanged with no significant differences. Color parameters of dealcoholized wines were not significantly different compared to the original wine after alcohol removal | Qf = 0.07 | Qs = 0.14 | T = 10 | Time = 240 | Qs = 0.183 | T = 20 | Time = 283 | 12.5 | 13.8 | 9.8–0.3 | 11.6–8.8 |
[144] |
[150] |
Higher alcohols | Acids | Esters | Ketones | lactones | Decrease in cherry, red fruits, and sweet notes. Increase in flowers notes only within 2% v/v reduction. Increase in grass and cooked notes and increase in astringency within 5% v/v reduction. Increase in bitterness and acid sensations within 3% v/v reduction | 49.5–98.9 | 60.5–98.7 | 71.5–99.0 | 67.1–99.9 | 73.6–98.2 |
[133] |
[32] | LE–GC/MS, LE–GC/FID |
[140] |
[36] |
Biomass reduction | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Xarelo white wine | Up to 4% v/v | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Merlot red wine | OD/EP | Liqui–Cel ExtraFlow | 13.8 | Qf = 10 | Qs = 10 | 11.1–8.9 | T = room temperature | The alcohol removal process did not affect the content of vanillin reactive flavans and total phenolics. A loss of 57% of total monomeric anthocyanins was observed after dealcoholization while total anthocyanins remained almost unchanged with no significant differences. Color parameters of dealcoholized wines were not significantly different compared to the original wine after alcohol removal | Time = 20 |
[ |
11.5 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Aglianico red wine | ] |
[150] |
Liqui-Cel Extra-flow | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | 10.1 | T = ns | Isoamyl acetate | Ethyl hexanoate | Ethyl octanoate | Ethyl decanoate | Time = 180 | 27.0 | 37.0 | 28.0 | 24.0 | 12.8 | 4.9–0.4 | Decrease in sweet and solvent aroma series (due to alcohol reduction) which characterize the wine |
[180] |
[197] | SBSE–GC/MS |
[142] |
[148] |
Arrested fermentation | High reduction | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Piedirosso red wine | OD/EP | 13.6 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Aglianico red wine | 11.5– 8.4 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Soave white wine | PTFE hollow fiber (Teflon, Verona, Italy) | Liqui-Cel Extra-flow, PP hollow fiber | Qf = 0.2 | Qs = 0.2 | T = 20 | Time = ns | ns | The alcohol removal process did not affect the content of vanillin reactive flavans and total phenolics. A loss of 52% of total monomeric anthocyanins was observed after dealcoholization while total anthocyanins remained almost unchanged with no significant differences. Color parameters of dealcoholized wines were not significantly different compared to the original wine after alcohol removal | Qf = 0.583 | Qs = 0.183 | T = 20 | Time = 283 | 15.5 | [144 |
13.5–10.8 | ] |
[150] |
* | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | Terpenes | Decrease in cherry, red fruits, flowers, and grass notes. Increase in acid and astringent sensations | 12.6–32.2 | 5.6–16.4 | 34.0–58.4 |
[133 | 22.0–26.0 | ] |
[32 | SPE–GC/MS | ] |
[191] |
[196] |
Post-fermentation | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Verdicchio white wine | Separation by membrane | PTFE hollow fiber (Teflon, Verona, Italy) | Nanofiltration (NF) | Qf = 0.2 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | Qs = 0.2 | T = 20 | Time = ns | Up to 4% v/v | Liqui-Cel 0.5×1, PP hollow fiber | ns | Recycling mode | Qf = 1.5 | Qs = 0.5 | T = 10 | Time = 240 |
[77,137,138[129][130][,139131,140],141[,142] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
* | 13.2 | Alcohols | Acids | 8.3–2.7 | Esters | Terpenes | Increase in acidity, a decrease in red fruits and spices notes, astringency, bitterness, and sweetness, resulting in lower acceptability |
[139] |
[35] |
Reverse osmosis (RO) | Up to 0.5% v/v or less |
[22][133],32[134],34[130],140[135],143[136],144[137][138] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Osmotic distillation (OD) | Up to 0.5% v/v or less |
[133][ | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Aglianico red wine | OD/EP | 12.5 | 10.6 | No significant differences between base wine and dealcoholized wine in terms of total polyphenols and color intensity |
[146] |
[152] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
8.9–25.8 | 8.0–15.8 | 40.0–54.1 | 21.0–28.0 | SPE–GC/MS |
[191] |
[196] |
Barbera red wine | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Aglianico red wine | OD/EP | 15.2 | 5.0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PV | Higher contents of total anthocyanins and total flavonoids compared to the original wine. Color: the intensity increases and the hue decreases (loss of orange notes) due to the increased content of total anthocyanins |
[155] |
[160] |
Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | PDMS JS-WSM-8040 (JiuSi High-Tech, Nanjing, China) | Batch operation | T = 45 | VP = 0.05 | 12.5 | 139][[ | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.5 | High retention of fruit aroma, producing wine with better smell and taste | [192] |
[210] |
Langhe Rosè wine | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
SCC | OD/EP | Chardonnay white wine | 32[,35140][138],36141,146][,147142][,148143][,149144][,150145][,151146] |
,152] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
13.2 | – | 5.0 | ns | Higher contents of total anthocyanins and total flavonoids compared to the original wine. Color: the intensity increases and the hue decreases (loss of orange notes) due to the increased content of total anthocyanins | 14.9 | [155] |
[160] |
Pervaporation (PV) | Up to 0.5% v/v or less | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Verduno Pelaverga red wine | OD/EP |
[147][148][149][150][151][152][153] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
14.6 | 5.0 | Higher contents of total anthocyanins and total flavonoids compared to the original wine. Color: the intensity increases and the hue decreases (loss of orange notes) due to the increased content of total anthocyanins |
[155] |
[160] |
Vacuum distillation (VD) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Falanghina white wine | Up to 1% v/v or less | OD/EP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
12.5 | 9.8–0.3 | At different alcohol content levels of wines, the total phenols and flavonoids do not differ significantly as they remain almost unchanged during the alcohol removal process |
[140] |
[36] |
Spinning cone column (SCC) | Up to 0.3% v/v | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Liqui–Cel Extra–flow, PP hollow fiber | Qf = 0.583 | Qs = 0.183 | T = 20 | Time = 283 | 13.8 | 11.6–8.8 | Alcohols | Esters | Acids | Terpenes | Others: | Benzaldehyde | ?–Butyrolactone | 8.4–31.8 | 42.9–60.9 | 12.5–17.1 | 13.8–32.3 | 55.3–65.9 | 4.5–13.6 | SPE–GC/MS |
[133] |
[32] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Aglianico red wine | Liqui–Cel Extra–flow, PP hollow fiber | Qf = 0.583 | Qs = 0.183 | T = 20 | Time = 283 | 15.5 | 13.5–10.8 | Alcohols | Esters | Acids | Terpenes | Others: | Benzaldehyde | ?–Butyrolactone | Vitispirane | 9.2–13.7 |
14.6–12.9 | 33.8–50.6 | 11–18.5 | 3.6–14.5 | nf | 12.9 | Unc | SPE–GC/MS | Decrease in overall aroma intensity and hot mouthfeel sensation |
[202] |
[245] |
[133] |
[32] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Aglianico red wine | Liqui–Cel 0.5×1, PP hollow fiber | Qf = 0.07 | Qs = 0.14 | T = 20 | Time = 255 | 13.0 | 6.5–0.2 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | Sulfur compounds | Phenols | Ketones and lactones | Aldehydes | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
RO-OD/EP | Shiraz red wine | Memstar AA MEM-074 and Liqui-Cel 2.5 × 8 Extra-flow | PP hollow fiber | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = ns | P = ns | Time = ns | 57.9–99.9 |
16.3 | 23.6–78.9 | 12.8–89.9 | 2.1–78.7 | 66.7–100 | 23.6–97.9 | unc–100 | 13.3–10.4 | LE–GC/MS, LE–GC/FID | Increase in dark fruit, raisin/prune, alcohol, and astringency in all dealcoholized wines with no significant effects. Increase in black pepper note and overall aroma intensity, and decrease in herbaceous note within 6% v/v reduction off alcohol |
[193] |
[217] |
[145] |
[151] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Merlot red wine | Liqui–Cel Extra–flow, PP hollow fiber | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cabernet Sauvignon red wine A | Qf = 5.8 | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qs = 8.1 | T = 20 | Time = 60 | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 55 | P = 30 | Time = 90 | 13.4 | 17.0 | 11.3 | 14.5 | Ethyl acetate | Isoamyl acetate | Isoamyl alcohol | Ethyl hexanoate | Ethyl octanoate | Linalool | 2–Phenylethyl acetate | Increase in dark fruit aroma and decrease of green aroma, dried fruit, and chocolate flavors with no significant difference in the overall intensity. A small decrease in acidity. Small but significant decreases in sweetness and saltiness. Increase in the sensation of astringency | 37.4 |
[16534.9 | 13.7 | 33.0 | ] |
[169] | 67.8 | 14.5 | 13.6 | HS/SPME–GC/MS |
[141] |
[147] |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | OD/EP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Barbera red wine | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cabernet Sauvignon red wine B | Polypropylene hollow fibers (JU.CLA.S. LTD, Verona, Italy) | ] |
Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
13.2 | Qf = 1.6 | Qs = 0.8 | T = 10 | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 55 | Time = 360 | 8.3–5.4 | P = 30 | Both total phenols and total anthocyanins decrease in dealcoholized wines with no significant differences compared to the original wine. The color intensity remains almost unchanged during ethanol removal | Time = 90 |
[ |
14.6 | 5.0 | ] |
[146] |
15.5 | Alcohols |
13.3 | Acids | Esters | Decreases in hotness, bitterness, and body (attributed to lower ethanol level). Decrease in confection and ‘chocolate’ aromas. Significant decrease in the overall flavor intensity (largely due to the decreased intensity of dark fruit, sweet spice, and chocolate flavors) with no significant effect on the overall intensity | 63.9 | 17.4 | 23.8 |
[165] |
[169] | SPE–GC/FID |
[155] |
[160] |
Multi-stage membrane-based systems | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cabernet Sauvignon red wine C | Up to 0.5% v/v or less | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
OD/EP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Tempranillo red wine | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Liqui–Cel ExtraFlow | 13.2 | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 55 | P = 30 | Time = 90 | 8.3–2.7 | Flavonoids and phenolic compounds remain almost unchanged in all dealcoholized samples compared to the base wine with no significant differences. Color intensity (evaluated by flavonoids and phenolic compounds) decrease slightly in all dealcoholized samples | [35] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Batch retentate–recycling mode | T = 15 |
Qf = 5.8 | Qs = 5.8 | T = room temperature | Time = 60 | 13.3 | 14.9 | 9.0 | 13.3 | [139] | Isoamyl alcohol | Decrease in hotness (attributed to lower ethanol level). Decrease in confection, dried fruit, and chocolate aromas with no significant difference in the overall intensity. Decrease in the sensation of astringency | Ethyl hexanoate | 21.0 | 20.0 |
[165] |
[169] | SBSE–GC/MS |
[142] |
[148] |
Langhe Rosè wine | VD | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Garnacha red wine | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cabernet Sauvignon red wine D | Liqui–Cel ExtraFlow | 13.2 | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia)5.0 | Higher contents of total anthocyanins and total flavonoids compared to the original wine. Color the intensity increases and the hue decreases (loss of orange notes) due to the increased content of total anthocyanins | Qf = 5 | Qs = 5 | T = room temperature | Time = 60 | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 55 | 13.9 | 9.3 |
[155] |
[160] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Isoamyl acetate | Ethyl hexanoate | 24.0 | 36.0 | SBSE–GC/MS | P = 30 | Time = 90 | 14.5 | 13.2 | Decrease in hotness (attributed to lower ethanol level). Increase in red fruit aroma with no significant difference in the overall intensity |
[165] |
[169] |
[142] |
[148] |
Barbera red wine | VD | 15.2 | 5.0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Higher contents of total anthocyanins and total flavonoids compared to the original wine. Color: the intensity increases and the hue decreases (loss of orange notes) due to the increased content of total anthocyanins | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Verduno Pelaverga red wine | Cabernet Sauvignon red wine E | Polypropylene hollow fibers (JU.CLA.S. LTD, Verona, Italy) | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = 1.6 | Qs = 0.8 | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 10 | Time = 360 | T = 55 | P = 30 | 14.6 | 5.0 | [155] |
[160] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Time = 90 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | 59.9 | 23.6 | 45.2 | SPE–GC/FID | 16.0 | 14.2 | Decrease in hotness (attributed to lower ethanol level). Decrease in overall flavor intensity with no significant difference in the overall intensity. Small but significant decreases in sweetness and saltiness |
[165] |
[169] | [155] |
[160] |
Verduno Pelaverga red wine | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | VD | Liqui–Cel 0.5×1, PP hollow fiber | 14.6 | Recycling mode | Qf = 1.5 | Qs = 0.5 | T = 10 | Time = 240 | 5.0 | Higher contents of total anthocyanins and total flavonoids compared to the original wine. Color the intensity increases and the hue decreases (loss of orange notes) due to the increased content of total anthocyanins | 13.2 | [155] |
[160] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
8.3–2.7 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | Lactones | Phenols | Others: | Benzaldehyde | α–Terpineol | 56.0–84.0 | 18.0–23.0 | 64.0–85.0 | 11.0–37.0 | 11.0–37.0 | 2.0–26.0 | 5.0–49.0 | SPE– LE–GC/MS/FID |
[139] |
[35] |
Red wine | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | SCC | Liqui–Cel mini module 1.7x5.5 | Membrana | 14.0 | Recycling mode | Qf = 1.5 | Qs = 0.5 | T = 10 | Time = 120 | < 0.3 | 13.2 | Increase in phenolic compounds, total phenolic, flavonol, tartaric ester, and anthocyanin contents by approximately 24%. Higher content of resveratrol than the original wine | 8.3–5.4 |
[159] |
[163] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Alcohols | Acids | Esters | Phenols | Lactones | 2.0–3.0 | 18.0–25.0 | 15.0–19.0 | 5.0–10.0 | 7.0–25.0 | SPME–GC/MS |
[138] |
[146] |
Rose wine | SCC | 14.0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Langhe Rosè wine | Polypropylene hollow fibers (JU.CLA.S. LTD, Verona, Italy) | Qf = 1.6 | Qs = 0.8 | < 0.3 | T = 10 | Time = 360 | 13.2 | Increase in phenolic compounds, total phenolic, flavonol, tartaric ester, and anthocyanin contents by approximately 24%. Higher content of resveratrol than the original wine | 5.0 |
[159] |
[163] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Alcohols | Acids | Esters | 60.4 | 30.9 | 47.8 | SPE–GC/FID |
[155] |
[160] |
White wine | SCC | 14.0 | < 0.3 | Increase in phenolic compounds content by approximately 24% | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PV | [ | 159] |
[163] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Tokaji Hárslevelű white wine | PERVAP.Sulzer 1060 PDMS | ‘‘Carrier gas mode’’ under atmospheric pressure | T = 40–70 | 13.1 | 0.1 | Total volatile aroma** | 70.0 | Distillation/LE–GC/MS |
[147] |
[29] |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine (cv.) | RO–OD/EP | 13.2 | 7.1–5.5 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | PDMS JS–WSM–8040 (JiuSi High–Tech, Nanjing, China) | Batch operation | T = 45 | Total phenols increase while total anthocyanins decrease in the dealcoholized wine samples. Color intensity increases during ethanol removal | VP = 0.05 |
[138 |
12.5 | ] |
[146] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.5 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | 19.7–39.5 | 12.7–28.2 | 48.0–99.9 | GC/MS |
[192] |
[210] |
Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
VD | RO–OD/EP | Barbera red wine | 14.1 | 12.5 | Significantly increase in color intensity due to increased content of anthocyanins during alcohol reduction compared to the base wine | – | [164] |
[168] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
T = 15 | 15.2 | 5.0 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | 50.4 | 13.7 | 19.8 | SPE–GC/FID |
[155] |
[160] |
Shiraz red wine | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Verduno Pelaverga red wine | RO–OD/EP | – | 15.2 | T = 15 | 12.6 | 14.6 | Increase in color intensity due to increased content of anthocyanins during alcohol reduction compared to the base wine |
[164] |
[168] |
5.0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Alcohols | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Acids | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Esters | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
53.6 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
2.3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
19.5 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
SPE–GC/FID | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[ | ] | [ | ] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Langhe Rosè wine | – | T = 15 | 13.2 | 5.0 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | 51.4 | 2.5 | 22.9 | SPE–GC/FID |
[155] |
[160] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
SCC | White wine | – | T = 25 | VP = 0.08 | Time = 60 | 10.6 | 0.3 | Aliphatic alcohols | Aromatic alcohols | Acids | Esters | Ketones | 98.0 | 3.0 | 20.0 | 53.0 | 71.0 | LE–GC/FID |
[160] |
[164] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chardonnay white wine | – | T = 30 | VP = 0.04 | Time = 60 | ns | ns | Total aroma** | 1.0–9.0 | HS/SPME–GC/MS |
[158] |
[162] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Tempranillo red wine | – | T = 30 | VP = 0.04 | Time = 60 | ns | ns | Total aroma** | 3.0–18.0 | HS/SPME–GC/MS |
[158] |
[162] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cabernet Sauvignon rose wine | – | T = 30 | VP = 0.04 | Time = 60 | ns | ns | Total aroma** | 1.0–4.0 | HS/SPME–GC/MS |
[158] |
[162] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
RO-OD/EP | Shiraz red wine | Memstar AA MEM–074 and Liqui–Cel 2.5×8 Extra–flow | PP hollow fiber | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = ns | P = ns | Time = ns | 16.3 | 13.3–10.4 | Alcohols | Esters | Monoterpenes | C13–Norisoprenoids | Lactones | Others: | Dimethyl sulfide | 14.9–38.9 | 29.8–49.5 | 9.2–20.8 | 9.4–14.5 | 17.1–21.4 | 52.6–71.9 | HS–SPME–GC/MS |
[193] |
[217] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | RO membrane (100 DA) and Liqui–cel mini module 1.7×5.5 | Membrane | Recycling mode | Qf = 1.5 | Qs = 0.5 | T = 10 | P = ns | Time = 120 | 13.2 | 7.1–5.5 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | Phenols | Lactones | 17.0–27.0 | 19.0–24.0 | 15.0–22.0 | 16.0–18.0 | unc–14.0 | SPME–GC/MS |
[138] |
[146] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Barossa Valley Shiraz – Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 55 | P = 30 | Time = 90 | 14.1 | 12.5 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | 15.5 | 10.0 | 5.1 | SPME–GC/MS |
[164] |
[168] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
McLaren Vale Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 55 | P = 30 | Time = 90 | 17.1 | 14.5 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | 13.6 | 6.1 | 18.8 | SPME–GC/MS |
[164] |
[168] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Adelaide Hills Shiraz red wine | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 55 | P = 30 | Time = 90 | 14.9 | 14.2 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | 7.0 | 0.4 | 8.6 | SPME–GC/MS |
[164] |
[168] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Barossa Valley Shiraz red wine | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 55 | P = 30 | Time = 90 | 15.2 | 12.6 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | 11.0 | 5.6 | 21.2 | SPME–GC/MS |
[164] |
[168] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
McLaren Vale Shiraz red wine | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 55 | P = 30 | Time = 90 | 14.7 | 12.3 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | 7.1 | 2.5 | 9.7 | SPME–GC/MS |
[164] |
[168] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cabernet Sauvignon red wine A | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 55 | P = 30 | Time = 90 | 17.0 | 14.5 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | 8.2 | 15.9 | 17.4 |
[165] |
[169] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cabernet Sauvignon red wine B | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 55 | P = 30 | Time = 90 | 15.5 | 13.3 | Alcohols | Acids | 3.8 | 12.0 |
[165] |
[169] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cabernet Sauvignon red wine C | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 55 | P = 30 | Time = 90 | 14.9 | 13.3 | Alcohols | 16.4 |
[165] |
[169] |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cabernet Sauvignon red wine D | Spiral wound 4040 and hollow fiber perstractive membrane (VA Filtration, Nuriootpa, Australia) | Qf = ns | Qs = ns | T = 55 | P = 30 | Time = 90 | 14.5 | 13.2 | Alcohols | Acids | Esters | 7.1 | 4.7 | 76.5 |
[165] |
[169] |