Ethylene-Nitric Oxide in Salt Tolerance: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Jessie Wu and Version 1 by Nafees Khan.

Salt stress significantly contributes to major losses in agricultural productivity worldwide. The sustainable approach for salinity-accrued toxicity has been explored. The use of plant growth regulators/phytohormones, mineral nutrients and other signaling molecules is one of the major approaches for reversing salt-induced toxicity in plants. Application of the signaling molecules such as nitric oxide (NO) and ethylene (ETH) and major mineral nutrient such as nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) play significant roles in combatting the major consequences of salt stress impacts in plants. However, the literature available on gaseous signaling molecules (NO/ETH) or/and mineral nutrients (N/S) stands alone, and major insights into the role of NO or/and ETH along with N and S in plant-tolerance to salt remained unclear. Thus, this review aimed to (a) briefly overview salt stress and highlight salt-induced toxicity, (b) appraise the literature reporting potential mechanisms underlying the role of gaseous signaling molecules and mineral nutrient in salt stress tolerance, and (c) discuss NO and ETH along with N and S in relation to salt stress tolerance. In addition, significant issues that have still to be investigated in this context have been mentioned.

  • FORMAT CHANGE

1. Introduction

AAs one of the most disturbing environmental stresses worldwide, salt stress has been projected to significantly increase due to the climate change [[1],[2],[3]]]. Excessive salt concentrations were reported in about 7% of the global land, whereas salt has affected almost 20% of the arable land and 33% of the irrigated land in the world [[4]]]. Additionally, by the year 2050, a continued exposure of arid and semi-arid regions to salt stress is predicted to cause about 30–50% losses worldwide [5[5]]; the salt-affected area is estimated to increase to 16.2 million ha [6[6]]. The increasing land area by salt stress urges plant scientists to build up strategies for sustainable crop production.
The excessive salinity in the rhizospheric zones can negatively affect growth and productivity through creating an imbalance in the cytoplasmic ion homeostasis and thereby impacting metabolic dysfunction and other major biochemical and physiological processes [3,7[3][7]]. Varied reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated at higher level can occur due to salinity stress in plant cells, can act as signaling molecules, and help in mediating numerous key physiological processes [8[8]]. However, overproduced or non-metabolized ROS can be toxic to plants and cause oxidative damage to cellular constituents including macromolecules (DNA, lipid, and proteins), and, eventually, cause cell death [9][[103],10].
Major mineral nutrients not only constitute a significant part of the agricultural system but also are widely known to modulate the synthesis and production of many plant hormones and thereby help in plant-adaptation to stresses including salt stress [2,11[2][11]]. Nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S), crucial mineral nutrients (macronutrients), are known to exhibit regulatory interactions and regulate plant growth and development [12[12]]. Notably, the synthesis of most amino acids and proteins, nucleic acids, and several other cellular components involves N [13[13]]. In many instances, N-assimilation and cellular ion homeostasis were reported to contribute in plant tolerance to salt stress [14,15[14][15]]. On the other hand, owing to its occurrence in various S-containing compounds, it serves as a key nutrient known to improve inherent capacity of plant for stress tolerance [15,16[15][16]]. Interestingly, most plant nutrients are interrelated with several phytohormones, where their synergistic or antagonistic actions contribute in modulation of the physiological/biochemical responses leading to salt tolerance [2[2]].
Nitric oxide (NO) is a gaseous phytohormone and a reactive nitrogen species (RNS). As a free radical gaseous signaling molecule, NO is involved in plant development and nutrient assimilatory processes and also improves plant tolerance to major stresses such as the soil salinity [17,18,19,20[17][18][19][20]]. Ethylene (ETH) is another gaseous phytohormone that influences plant responses to salt stress [21,22[21][22]]. Various studies have shown the interaction of NO and ETH with N and S under abiotic stress. Studies have reported the interactive effects of NO with N and S [2[2]] and ETH with N and S [10[10]]. N-availability was reported to influence ETH -production and improve salt tolerance in mustard [23[23]], whereas NO was found to enhance the photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency (PNUE) and photosynthetic sulfur use efficiency (PSUE). Owing to the occurrence of a close link between the assimilation of N or S with salt stress tolerance, the identification and analyses are imperative to enlighten how much N or S assimilation is induced by phytohormones or vice-versa in order to counteract the salt stress-consequences in plants. The understanding of the role of NO and ETH in the regulation of assimilation of N or S may help in highlighting insights into the plant salt tolerance induced by N- or S-assimilation.
Considering the above aspects, this paper: (i) overviews major salt stress-impacts in plants; (ii) appraises literature available on the role and coordination-outcomes of N and S in plant salt tolerance; (iii) presents discussion on the role of NO and ETH, and the significance of crosstalk of ETH and NO with N and S in plant salt tolerance; and (iv) enlightens so far unexplored aspects in the current context.

2. Salt Stress: An Overview

Contingent to the amounts and type of salts, also the amount of sodium present and soil alkalinity, salt-affected soils can be non-saline or sodic and saline (Table 1). ECe, electrical conductivity; ESP, exchangeable sodium percentage (relative amount of the Na ion present on the soil surface; SAR, sodium adsorption ratio (a measure of the amount of Na relative to Ca and Mg. Salt stress is the issue of almost all the continents and under a wide range of climates. Conversely, this stress issue is more urgent in arid and semi-arid climates contrasted with the humid climate, where yearly precipitation is not as much as evapotranspiration in the world. At a global scale, about 12,781 Mha areas are affected by salinity and sodicity stresses. The regions with a preponderance of salt-affected soils are shown in Table 2. It is remarkable to note that ~85% of the total global area is only slightly to moderately affected by high salt concentrations; whereas, from harsh to extreme limitations for crop production occur in the remainder 15% [24]. The countries where significant salt-affected soils exist including but not limited to such as India (27%); Pakistan (28%), Israel (13%), Australia (20%), China (15%), Iraq (50%), and Egypt (30%) [25].

2.1. Salinity Stress Impacts in Plant

2.1. Salinity Stress Impacts in Plants

s

2.1.1. Growth and Development

Salinity-impact on the germination has been reported in several crop plants including  Brassica  juncea [10 [10]], Oryza sativa [26 Oryza sativa [24]], and  Triticum aestivum [27 [25]]. In salinity (EC 12 dS m–1)-exposed  B. juncea  genotypes, a significant correlation existed between tolerance index and shoot length, dry matter and also salt tolerance efficiency [28[26]]. In addition to significant reductions of shoot and root length, the highest NaCl (200 mM) caused the highest decrease in the germination percentage, germination index and speed of germination in Helianthus annuus [29 Helianthus annuus [27]]. Salinity (50, 100, and 150 mM NaCl)-exposed  Pistacia vera  exhibited a negative relationship between salinity stress and vegetative growth parameters [30[28]]. A differential impact of salinity on the fresh and dry weights of the shoot system can be controlled by many factors including changes in salinity concentration, type of salt present, or type of plant species [31[29]]. Compared to roots, salinity regimes impact shoots to a greater extent [32[30]]. In another study, 100 mM NaCl-exposed  Medicago sativa  seedlings showed a marked reduction in dry weight of root and shoot (along with reduced nodulation) [33[31]]. The genotypes of  B. juncea  exhibited greater reductions in shoot and root biomass and leaf area under 50 mM NaCl-exposure [34[32]].

2.1.2. Photosynthetic Functions

Abiotic stresses including salinity have been widely shown to severely impact all the phases of photosynthesis, the most fundamental and intricate physiological process in plants [2,22,35[2][22][33]]. In fact, the overall status of photosynthesis can be due to stress-induced change in its various components including photosynthetic pigments and photosystems, the electron transport system, and CO2  reduction pathways.
Chlorophyll (Chl) is among the sensitive indicators of cellular metabolic state [35[33]]. The content of Chl a and Chl b was significantly reduced under salinity in cucumber seedlings [16[16]]. The photosynthetic pigments as Chl a and Chl b, carotenoids and net photosynthesis rate along with stomatal conductance were highly affected by the salt concentration in water melon plants [36[34]]. In another study, 100 mM NaCl-mediated reduction of Chl a, Chl b and carotenoids contents was shown in rice [37[35]]. In salinity-exposed  T. aestivum, a greater decline in the photosynthetic rate and electron transport rate and saturating photosynthetically active photo flux density was noted [22[22]]. Moreover, there were reductions in the number of photosynthetic pigments such as Chl and carotenoids with the net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, intercellular CO2  concentration, and transpiration rate under stress in tomato plants [38[36]].
The photosystem II (PS II) is the prime site affected by any change in electron transport chain activity due to stress such as salinity [39[37]]. Severe reduction in the efficiency of PS II, the electron transport system, and the CO2  assimilation rate under salinity stress has been reported [22[22]]. Decreased growth was obtained in barley plants due to salt-accrued damaged Chl fluorescence and oxygen evolving complex [40[38]]. It has been observed that growth becomes reduced in plants due to damage of PS II and electron transport rates under stress [41[39]]. In B. junce B. junceaa,  the increased concentration of salt significantly impacted net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, intercellular CO2, quantum yield of PS II, Rubisco activity, and PNUE [10[10]]. The study of Singh et al. [42[40]] showed the response towards variable concentration of salt, which hampered the photosynthetic apparatus and the water splitting efficiency complex. The photosynthetic pigment content and plant growth were greatly reduced under salinity stress in salt-sensitive  Sorghum  plants [43[41]]. Salt stress was also reported to cause reductions in leaf area, pigment content, Hill reaction,  14CO2  fixation, morphology of chloroplasts, number of reaction centers, net CO2  assimilation rate, and Rubisco activity in wheat [44[42]]. Salinity-mediated down regulation of photosynthetic gas exchange rate, water utilization efficiency was reported to lead to reductions in quantum yield of PS II, photochemistry, and photochemical quenching [45[43]]. Hussain et al. [46[44]] showed that salt stress reduced net photosynthetic rate, and intercellular CO2  concentration in rice.

2.1.3. Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Metabolism

Salt stress can enhance the peroxidation of macromolecules through oxidative damage of membrane components [47[45]]. However, peroxidation of lipids can be caused even at mild levels of abiotic stress [48[46]]. In NaCl (0.5, 0.1 and 4 M)-exposed  Dunaliella salina  and  Dunaliella tertiolecta, increased H2O2  content was positively correlated with the level of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) [49[47]]. In  B..  juncea, an increase in TBARS content with increasing the degree of soil salinity was noted by Fatma et al. [16[16]] and Jahan et al. [10[10]].
The major components of antioxidant defense system can be differentially modulated by salinity stress [2,22[2][22]]. Salinity stress was observed to induce oxidative damage by increasing electrolyte leakage and the contents of H2O2, malondialdehyde (MDA), and the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POX), and catalase (CAT) [[484]]. Salinity-accrued enhancements in the activity of ascorbate peroxidase (APX), CAT, some peroxiredoxins, glutathione/ thioredoxin peroxidases, and glutathione S-transferase (GSTs) during salinity stress were argued to be involved in the metabolism of H2O2 [51 [49]]. In  Glycine max., NaCl stress elevated the activity of CAT and APX to minimize the toxic effects of salinity [52[50]]. Salinity-induced increases in the cellular H2O2  and concomitant enhancements in the activity of CAT and APX were found in plants [16[16]]. Increased GSH content and elevation in the activity of SOD, H2O2-metabolizing (APX), and GSH-regenerating (GR) enzymes were found to be significantly higher in leaves of salt-exposed wheat [22[22]].

2.1.4. Nutrients Uptake, Assimilation and Related Traits

Elevation in the soil salinity impacts the uptake and metabolism of the major plant nutrients including calcium (Ca), potassium (K), phosphorous (P), N and S [10,53[10][51]]. Changes in K+-selective ion channels activity or the changes in osmotic potential of solution are bound to reduce the mass flow of most of these mineral nutrients in roots under salt stress [54[52]]. In fact, insufficient supply of one nutrient may affect the amount of the other element which in turn, may hamper the growth of plants by altering their metabolic pathways. Hence, due to the accomplished various roles of these nutrients in plants, they tend to take up (and assimilate) these elements in order to cope particularly with the stressed condition [10[10]]. However, salinity may inhibit or promote nutrient uptake and metabolism by different plant species contingent to types of plants and their organs, salinity levels and nutrients. Salinity stress is known to impact N assimilation by impairing N-uptake, NO3−  reduction, and NH4+  assimilation [55[53]]. In addition, the supply of S to salt-treated plants improved plant salt tolerance [56[54]]. Salinity is known to inhibit K+  uptake which decreases the K+/Na+  ratio and control overall plant salt-tolerance [57[55]]. In fact, salt stress provokes the rapid depolarization of the plasma membrane potential that in turn activates voltage gated GORK (guard cell outward rectifying K+) channels and results in K+  efflux [58[56]]. Adverse effects of salinity on PSII activity and eventual hampered growth and productivity may also involve salinity-caused reduced uptake and deficiency of Mn [59[57]]. The solubility and P uptake in plants can also be impacted by changes in soil-Na+  concentration and pH [60,61[58][59]].

2.1.5. Crop Yield

The final yield of most crops displayed brutal yield losses even under moderate salt stress may involve changes in the soluble salts in the rhizosphere [62[60]]. Negative association of different yield components with soil-salinity levels has been widely reported [63,64[61][62]]. Thus, as the main research priority, devising explicit means is imperative in order to recover crop productivity on salt-affected soils (Figure 1). To this end, crop breeding comprising both predictable breeding and modern molecular marker-assisted breeding could be of great help [65[63]].
Stresses 01 00014 g001 550
Figure 1. Schematic representation of the major influence of salt stress on plant metabolism and functions
Schematic representation of the major influence of salt stress on plant metabolism and functions.
.

3. Nitrogen in Salt Tolerance

The uptake of N and its assimilation in plants have been widely found to be impacted by salinity stress [2,66[2][64]]. Salinity (50 mM NaCl)-mediated decreases in the contents of both N and S were reported in  B. juncea [67 [65]]. In  Hordeum vulgare, S assimilation was highly impacted with 100 mM NaCl that in turn reduced the cellular thiols (-SH) in plants [68[66]]. The concentration of NaCl (100 mM)-mediated decrease in N uptake was found in  TT. aestivum [66aestivum [64]]. There was a drastic reduction of N content in the form of nitrate NO3-  in the cultivars of  O. sativa  when exposed to 150 mM NaCl [69[67]]. In addition to impacting the content of the major non-enzymatic antioxidants, salt stress inhibited the activity of antioxidant enzymes and enzymes involved in N-assimilation [3,70[3][68]]. Major genes involved in the uptake and transport of N, and assimilation can also be affected by high salinity [71[69]]. To this end, five genes (BjAMT1.2,,  BjAMT2,,  BjGS1.1,,  BjGDH1, and  BjASN2) were down-regulated, whereas three genes (BjNRT1.1,,  BjNRT1.5, and  BjGDH2) were up-regulated under salt stress [71[69]]. It was concluded that the reduction in NR in plants may lead to down-regulation of gene participating in N assimilation under salinity stress. N-supplementation restricted Na+-accumulation and improved plant-K status, and thereby increased growth [72[70]]. Furthermore, N-supply also regulated ROS-homeostasis and alleviated salt-toxicity [73[71]]. NH4+  supplementation induced salt-tolerance through efficient N-uptake and assimilation processes and controlled K+/Na+  homeostasis [74[72]]. The N-supplementation with brassinosteroids seed priming also improved plant salt-tolerance [75[73]].

4. Sulfur in Salt Tolerance

The maintenance of the S-status and the major biochemical and molecular studies to this end have reported to improve plant abiotic stress tolerance [76,77[74][75]]. In fact, S-containing compounds (including cysteine, Cys; glutathione, GSH) significantly help in cellular redox homeostasis and thereby minimize plant protection against oxidative stress [78,79,80,81,82,83[76][77][78][79][80][81]]. GSH acts as an important water-soluble and low molecular weight antioxidant; a major component of AsA-GSH cycle; and the main non-protein source of S to the plants [79,81[77][79]]. Furthermore, GSH interacts with diverse stress and defense-related signaling molecules and can modulate their pathways, thereby combatting stress-impacts [80[78]]. Adequate S-supply can enhance the content of GSH and improve photosynthetic and growth characteristics in salt stressed plants [16,78[16][76]]. The imposition of salt stress significantly increased S-assimilation and the biosynthesis of Cys and GSH [2[2]]. In addition, S-supplementation was also observed to improve ascorbic acid (AsA), total phenolics, tocopherol, lycopene, and antioxidant capacity, and decreased H2O2  and MDA content in  Z. mays  under salt conditions [84[82]]. S-supply can also attenuate the inhibitory effects of salt stress on gas exchange attributes and growth of lettuce plants, decrease Na+/K+  ratio, and improve uptake of K and P [85[83]]. Moreover, supplementation of S reduced the electrolyte leakage and Na+  accumulation while increasing K+  and Ca2+  and photosynthetic rate under high salt-stressed sunflower plants [86[84]].

5. Coordination of N and S in Salt Stress Tolerance

The major outcomes of the coordinated actions between N and S have emerged as an important strategy for improving plant growth and productivity under environmental stresses [10,67[10][65]]. In fact, there occurs functional convergence and good coordination between N and S uptake, reduction assimilatory pathways [2,87,88[2][85][86]]. The status of nitrate reductase (NR; involved in N-assimilation) and ATP-sulfurylase (ATP-S; involved in S-assimilation) showed mutual interaction in terms of their coordinated role in Cys-synthesis and GSH-production [2[2]]. Particularly, there exists a close relation among GSH and S and N [2[2]]. The availability of its constituent amino acids, Cys, glutamine and glycine are connected with the biosynthesis of GSH which contains three moles of N per mole of S. Notably, the glutamine synthetase (GS)-glutamate synthase (GOGAT) pathway of N assimilation yields glutamic acid; whereas, S-assimilation ends with Cys synthesis [2[2]]. In this way, the coordinative functions of S and N may strengthen plant capacity for stress-tolerance. The literature is full on the recognition of regulatory interactions between N and S assimilation, and its significance in plant stress tolerance [2,67,89[2][65][87]]. The synergistic relationship of N and S also contributed in enhancing plant growth, photosynthetic efficiency and proline accumulation under salt stress [90[88]]. The basal supplementation of S with foliarly applied salicylic acid (SA) to salt treated plants modulated enzymes involved in N assimilation, and GOGAT cycle [15[15]]. During N-deficiency, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and rhizobia synergistically regulated assimilation and remobilization of N and also modulated senescence-associated genes expression [91[89]]. However, the literature is scanty on N-S interactive effects in minimization of salt toxicity. The synergistic relationship of N and S also contributed to enhancement of growth and crop productivity [89[87]]. The relationship of N and S in terms of crop yield and quality has also been recognized in several studies [89[87]]. It is imperative to unveil more insights into N-S coordination, and their cumulative role in plant salt-tolerance at physiological/biochemical and molecular levels.

6. Nitric Oxide

Nitric oxide (NO), the smallest diatomic gas (30.006 g mol−1), has emerged as a gaseous signaling molecule in plants and has also been reported to exhibit its connection with a range of phenomena from germination and senescence to photosynthesis and cellular redox balance [1,17,81,92,93,94[1][17][79][90][91][92]]. NO can easily diffuse across the plant cells and contribute to signal transduction pathways by interacting with different cellular compounds and radicals [95[93]]. Even low (μM and nM) levels of NO can confer plant tolerance to a range of stresses including metal toxicity, salt, drought, high temperatures by mainly modulating the major components of antioxidant defense system and thereby limiting elevated ROS-accrued oxidative stress [1,2,10,17,19,96,97[1][2][10][17][19][94][95]]. Both exogenous supplementation of NO-donors [e.g., sodium nitroprusside (SNP)], NO-scavengers [e.g., 2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide (cPTIO)] and enzyme inhibitors were widely used to elucidate NO-roles in stressed plants. NO can activate secondary messengers and/or induce transcription of genes and thereby control diverse processes in plants [98[96]]. Moreover, NO can also directly modify proteins, and react with residues of Cys (S-nitrosylation), tyrosine (nitration), or iron and zinc in metalloproteins (metal nitrosylation) [99[97]].

6.1. NO Generation and Signaling

Cytoplasm, chloroplasts, mitochondria and peroxisomes are the major sites of NO-generation in plants [100[98]]. Notably, major pathways for NO generation discovered to date in plants can be categorized into namely enzymatic and non-enzymatic pathways [20[20]]. In enzymatic pathways, cytosolic nitrate reductase (NR; EC 1.6.6.1) and NO synthase (NOS; EC 1.14.13.39) catalyze NO-generation. However, nitrite NO-reductase (Ni:NOR) and xanthine oxido-reductase (XOR) [10[98][99]0,101], and the heme proteins [102[100]] have also been argued to be involved in the enzymatic generation of NO [102[100]]. Moreover, enzyme NO synthase NOS (EC 1.14.13.39) is involved in the production of endogenous NO in mammals [103[101]]. In  A. thaliana  genome,  AtNOA1 (NITRIC OXIDE ASSOCIATED 1) is indirectly involved in NO production [94[92]].
In plants, enzymatic endogenous NO-generation has been assumed to mainly involve NR [104,105[102][103]]. Restricted to the cytosol NR has been suggested to catalyze the reduction of NO3-  to NO2-  using NADPH as the main electron donor [103[101]]. Nevertheless, revealed through in vitro and in vivo experiments, low oxygen concentration and cellular pH were argued as two of the most important requirements for the activity of NR [104[102]]. In  Arabidopsis, the NR enzyme encoded redundantly by  NIA1  and  NIA2  genes is capable of reducing nitrite to NO [106[104]]. In addition to highlighted enzymatic sources of NO-generation in plants, NO can be generated non-enzymatically as a by-product of denitrification, fixation of N and respiration. At pH range between 3.0–6.0, AsA-mediated reduction of nitrite yields NO and dehydroascorbic acid [105[103]].
Owing to its lipophilic and highly diffusible in nature, NO is involved in several signaling processes in plants [107[105]]. The list of NO-derivatives, usually referred to as RNS includes NO radicals (NO−), nitrosonium cation (NO+), peroxynitrite (ONOO−), S-nitrosothiols (SNOs), higher oxides of N (NOx) and dinitrosyl-iron complexes [108[106]]. S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) is yielded as a result of the reaction of NO with reduced GSH in presence of O2. In turn, NADH-dependent S-nitrosoglutathione reductase (GSNOR) decomposes GSNO to GSSG and NH3 [109 [107]]. NO synthesized during these processes can induce diverse effects in plants [110[108]]. Conflicting reports are accessible about NO induced changes, where some studies show NO as a stress inducing agent [111[109]], even as others have mentioned it as a protective agent [17[17]]. In order to play signaling function, NO has been shown to interact with second messenger, such as, cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), cytosolic Ca2+  ion concentration, and cADP-ribose, phosphatidic acid and ROS [112[110]]. NO-mediated regulation of the activity of enzymes may involve post-translational modifications and joining themselves with metal centers of proteins. NO may also alter the aggregation state, activity, or location of residue of Cys and tyrosine of proteins [99[97]]. NO-mediated nitration of fatty acids is an imperative part of NO signaling in plants [113[111]]. NO can also initiate mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways in plant cells [114[112]]. MAPK cascade (MEK2-SIPK) induces  NO ASSOCIATED1  and NR-mediated NO burst [115[113]]. In particular, SIPK can give positive feedback between NO and ROS signals and MAPK cascades can act to regulate ROS and NO production in plants [115[113]]. Reduction in ROS levels, mitigation of oxidative stress and the role as an anti-senescence agent can be performed by the mitochondrial NOS (NOS1).

6.2. Nitric Oxide in Salt Tolerance

The literature supports the involvement of NO in plant stress-response mechanisms, which are largely contradictory, and are contingent to plant species types and the extent of the salt treatment. On the one hand, NO-mediated improvement in plant health was reported to involve improved osmolytes accumulation and strengthened antioxidative defense systems [116[114]]. NO can also mitigate H+-ATPase inhibition, enhance mineral absorption and maintain hormone equilibrium; and thereby attenuate growth inhibition [117[115]]. The NO-melatonin interaction regulates the expression of Cu/Zn-SOD and Mn-SOD, eventually maintains oxidative homeostasis in plants under salt stress [118[116]]. Moreover, the family of protein kinase is also involved in NO-mediated signaling cascades in salt stressed plants. Furthermore, comparative study of NO and SA was done to study their impact on salt-stress mitigation. The results speculated that NO enhanced salt tolerance due to antioxidant enzymes and compatible solute. However, SA was effective to reduce MDA and H2O2  content [119[117]]. The supplementation of NO and jasmonic acid (JA) was reported to mitigate salt stress toxicity through modulation of antioxidant enzymes [96[94]]. NO-interaction with phytohormones can be useful in plant salinity tolerance. In  Arabidopsis, abiotic stress can reduce root meristem growth by decreasing accumulation of auxin-mediated by NO [120[118]]. The auxin-mediated initiation of NADPH-dependent thioredoxin reductase (NTR) activity is reduced by NO scavengers, signifies that NO is downstream of auxin in this regulatory pathway. NO was observed to efficiently reduce the inhibitory effects of salt stress on growth rates and exosmosis of electrolytes and decreases the lipid peroxidation in wheat as a result of increment in cytokinin (CK) [121[119]]. Furthermore, the supply of absicsic acid (ABA) improves the production and participation of NO downstream of ABA and thereby controls processes including seed germination, dormancy and stomatal movement [122[120]].

7. Ethylene

First identified as a simple gaseous molecule (28.054 g mol−1) ethylene (ETH; CH2=CH2), is produced in all higher plants and usually connected with fruit ripening and the triple response. ETH has been reported first as the active component in illuminating gas caused a triple response in etiolated pea seedlings [123[121]]. The development of  A. thaliana  as a model system and eventual development and screening of genetic mutants largely contributed in ETH signaling [124[122]]. The extension in our understanding on how this phytohormone works was possible as a result of the identification of gene array and transcriptional factors working downstream [125[123]].
Ethylene regulates diverse aspects of plant growth responses and development [126[124]] and also plays very important roles in photosynthesis under abiotic stress [22[22]] by regulation of stomatal movement and more influx of CO2  important for carboxylation [127[125]]. The list of major factors involved in the potential control of ETH-production includes internal signals throughout the development and plant responses under varied abiotic (nutritional disorders, wounding, hypoxia, ozone, chilling, or freezing) and biotic (e.g., pathogen attack) stresses [128[126]]. Furthermore, ETH can regulate H+-ATPase gene expression and thereby control ion homeostasis in salt stressed plants [129[127]].

7.1. Ethylene Biosynthesis and Signaling

The ETH biosynthetic pathway in higher plants is well described [130,131,132,133[128][129][130][131]]. ETH-production is strictly regulated at various levels and involves both transcriptional [134[132]], post-translational regulation [135[133]]. ETH-signaling cascade starts with first perceived by a family of membrane-bound receptors, predominantly localized at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In  Arabidopsis, ETH-receptors (ETHYLENE RECEPTOR1  and  2  (ETR1/2),  ETHYLENE RESPONSE SENSOR 1  and  2  (ERS1/2) and  ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 4  (EIN4) perceive ETH and also involves a number processes [136[134]]. In particular, EIN3 and its close homolog,  ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE3-LIKE1  (EIL1) are key transcription factors activated by EIN2 [137[135]].

7.2. Ethylene in Salt Tolerance

ETH signaling contributes in plant stress responses and tolerance to abiotic stresses including salinity [16,22,138[16][22][136]]. ETH can maintain the homeostasis of ions and also up-regulate antioxidant enzymes in plants under environmental fluctuation [139[137]]. Exogenous application of ACC lowered osmotic stress and controlled non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) via PSI cyclic electron flow and starch metabolism in tomatoes under salt stress [21[21]]. MAPK cascade-mediated control of the activation of different defense mechanisms also contributes in response to ROS stress [140[138]].
The supply of ETH-releasing compounds (such as ethephon), ETH-precursors (such as ACC) and/or endogenous ETH-overproduction were reported to confer plant salt tolerance [141,142[139][140]]. ETH may act as both a positive regulator and or a negative regulator in salt stress-resistance in plants. To this end, application of 1-MCP, an ETH-action inhibitor improved physiological and biochemical antioxidant characteristics [46[44]]. Calcium carbide (CaC2), a precursor of ETH was reported to exhibit its ability to alleviate salt stress and improve ETH-concentration, seed germination, osmolytes and activities of α-amylase and decrease H2O2  and MDA contents under salt stress [143[141]]. Ethylene contribution to salt acclimation processes can differ with respect to the type of response, including improved expression of ETH receptors and ETH production [144[142]]. However, ETH involvement in plant response to salt resistance is highly complex and still remains unclear. In addition, EIN3/EILs are the key elements and positive factors in ETH-mediated downstream transcriptional cascade [145[143]]. EIN3/EILs are involved in many physiological processes, seed germination, apical hook formation, fruit development, abiotic stress and hormone responses [145,146[143][144]]. A recent report indicates that EIN3/EIL1 are necessary for the enhanced ETH-induced salt tolerance in  Arabidopsis  and salt stress leads to a large number of EIN3/EIL1-regulated genes via promoting EBF1/EBF2 proteasomal degradation in EIN2-dependent and EIN2-independent pathways [147[145]]. Overexpression of EIN3 target genes (e.g., ERFs and  SALT INDUCED EIN3/EIL1-DEPENDENT1  (SIED1)) in a range of plant species leads to salt tolerance [144[142]]. Moreover, melatonin was also reported to enhance plant salt-tolerance by promoting  MYB108A-mediated ETH biosynthesis [148[146]].
Signaling molecules such as ABA, CK, indole acetic acid (IAA), gibberrelins (GA), ROS, and Ca2+  interacts with ETH and thereby contribute in plant stress-adaptation [15,138,149,150[15][136][147][148]]. The DELLA proteins and GA-opposable growth inhibitors of the GA signaling pathway participate in plant salt-tolerance [151[149]]. In particular, ETH-mediated increase in the accumulation of DELLA proteins reduced the action of GA [138[136]]. ABA was reported to regulate the ETH biosynthesis-associated genes (AtACS5,  AtACS7,  TaACO1, and  GhERF1) under salt stress [138[136]]. ETH and JA may act synergistically or antagonistically in response to stressed conditions and mediate via EIN3/EIL1 along with  JAZs-MYC2 [152 [150]].
The relationship between ETH and SA are antagonistic, conferring tolerance against environmental fluctuation [153[151]]. The application of SA restricted the ETH production by inhibiting the activity of ACC synthase under salt stress [154[152]]. As a result, the reduction in the synthesis of ETH alleviated the toxicity of salt stress. Nazar et al. [155[153]] suggested that SA treatment constrained the ETH formation by inhibiting the ACC synthase activity under drought stress. Interactive outcomes of ETH, H2O2,  and brassinosteroids were reported to confer plant-tolerance against salt stress [156[154]].

8. Crosstalk of NO with N and S in Salt Tolerance

The NO generation and assimilation of N are closely connected. Both the amount and also the form of the supplied N (i.e., NO3−  or/NH4+) affect levels of NO in plants [157[155]]. Nitrite (NO2−) and arginine are the main substrates for NO synthesis. Plants were reported to optimize the use of nitrite as a main source for NO [158[156]]. NO-regimes were reported to exaggerate the activity NR, a key enzyme in N-metabolism, and a NO-source [159[157]]. NO was also argued to modulate the uptake and distribution systems of N [160[158]]. In addition to its role in N assimilation and uptake, involvement of NO in nitrate-sensing pathway was also reported in plants [161[159]]. The reaction of NO with GSH produces GSNO, a low-molecular-weight S-nitrosothiol (SNO). Notably, more stable than NO, SNO serves as a mobile reservoir of NO. However, GSH content can also regulate plant’s S-status through induced S assimilation and forms GSNO [17,162[17][160]]. The coordination of NO with S can maintain ionic and redox homeostasis, strengthen the plant antioxidant machinery, and thereby improve photosynthetic performance, growth, and salt tolerance [17[17]].  Figure 2  summarizes N and S assimilation and how their coordination with NO helps in salt tolerance in plants.
Stresses 01 00014 g002 550Stresses 01 00014 g002 550
Figure 2. Regulatory interaction between nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) assimilation and nitric oxide (NO) biosynthesis linked with salinity stress tolerance. APR, adenosine 5′phosphosulfate reductase; ATP-S, ATP sulfurylase; GR, glutathione reductase; GS, glutamine synthetase; GSH, glutathione reduced; GSNO, S-nitrosoglutathione; GSNOR, GSNO reductase; GSSG, glutathione oxidized; NADPH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate;NR, nitrate reductase; NiR, nitrite reductase; NT, nitrate transporter; OAS-TL, O-acetylserine (thiol)lyase; ST, sulfate transporter; SiR, sulfite reductase.

94. Crosstalk of Ethylene with N and S in Salt Tolerance

Interaction-outcomes of ETH with uptake, assimilation of the major mineral elements can contribute in improving plant growth and development under abiotic stresses [10,16[10][16]]. Deficiency of both N and S is established in the world soils. Hence, maximizing their utilization efficiency in plants is imperative for crop improvement. Studies have enlightened the relation between S-deficiency and ETH-biosynthesis. ETH could ameliorate and regulate S-deficiency in plants [142[140]]. Despite role of N and S in constituting Cys, required for the synthesis of GSH and Met precursor of ETH biosynthesis, the influence of N and S on ETH signaling is meager. As a part of SAM, Met can act as a regulatory molecule in ETH synthesis. The Met pathway is sensitive to salt stress; however, the level of SAM synthase is enhanced significantly under salt stress [9[9]]. In assimilation of N, incorporation of NR into amino acids occurs via GOGAT pathways. Many of these amino acids are involved in ETH-biosynthesis control. Moreover, in addition to increasing N-assimilation, ETH has also been found to regulate proline production in plants under optimum or stress conditions [10,127[10][125]].
Exogenous ETH through ethephon (ETH releasing compound) can increase N-assimilation and photosynthesis in plants subjected to different levels of N [127[125]]. S-nutrition can modulate plant stress responses by increasing ETH production. Excess S-mediated plant salt tolerance involved ETH, where inhibition of ETH biosynthesis counteracted the effects of S excess on salt stress mitigation [16[16]]. Moreover, the cross-talk between GSH and ETH signaling was proposed under Cd and drought stress [163,164[161][162]]. However, this is not the only link between ETH synthesis and S. Under S-limited condition, the transcription factor ETH insensitive-like 3 gene regulates many S-deficiency responsive genes [165[163]]. Figure 3 summarizes the interaction of ETH with N and S.
Stresses 01 00014 g003 550Stresses 01 00014 g003 550
Figure 3. Regulatory interaction between nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) assimilation and ethylene (ETH) biosynthesis linked with salt stress tolerance. ACC, 1-amino cyclopropane carboxylic acid synthase; ACO, 1-amino cyclopropane carboxylic acid oxidase; APR, adenosine 5′phosphosulfate reductase; ATP-S, ATP sulfurylase; GS, glutamine synthetase; NR, nitrate reductase; NiR, nitrite reductase; NT, nitrate transporter; ST, sulfate transporter; SiR, sulfite reductase; OAS-TL, O-acetylserine (thiol)lyase; SAM, S-adenosyl methionine.

10. Conclusions: Bridging the Gaps in Understanding Salinity Tolerance

The review emphasizes that salt-induced consequences in plants are primarily due to the excess overproduction of ROS resulting in disturbance in plant metabolism and eventually loss of photosynthetic productivity. The appraisal of the studies conducted has shown that plants execute various mechanisms as possible defense strategies to respond the adverse stress conditions. The management of mineral nutrients N or S-mediated regulation serves as a major determinant for depicting salt stress tolerance. Assimilation of N or S leads to the synthesis of Cys that serves as a precursor for the synthesis of a tripeptide GSH which plays a key role in the protection of plants against salt stress. Additionally, the supplementation of N and S and exogenously applied phytohormones prove beneficial for the physiology and metabolism of plants under salt stress, by regulating various metabolic processes as a function of antioxidative defense enzymes. Antioxidants defense system has a constructive function in controlling salt stress in scavenging ROS. Enhanced level of antioxidants enzymes in plants may provide a shield against salt stress through molecular approaches. The literature discussed provides insight on the effects of phytohormones signaling on the regulation of N and S assimilation, GSH synthesis, physiological processes, and productivity of crop species under abiotic stress in general and salt stress in picky. Moreover, diverse studies illustrate the involvement of NO and ETH in providing protection against various environmental stresses, only meaegre studies discuss the interaction of NO and ETH with N and S with respect to the salt stress. This review also presented a critical crosstalk on NO/ETH, assimilation of N and S, and salt stress (Figure 4).
Stresses 01 00014 g004 550
Figure 4.  Summary of the major outcomes. The involvement of NO/ETH with supplementation of N and S in alleviation toxicity of salt stress. APX, ascorbate peroxidase; AVG, 1-aminoethoxy vinyl glycine; ETH, ethylene; cPTIO, 4-(carboxyphenyl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxy-3-oxide; CAT, catalase; Cys, cysteine; GR, glutathione reductase; GSH, reduced glutathione; GSSG, oxidized glutathione; N, nitrogen; NO, nitric oxide; NUE, nitrogen use efficiency; S, sulfur; SOD, superoxide dismutase; SUE, sulfur use efficiency.
The synergistic relationship of N and S plus phytohormone (ETH/NO) could control plant metabolism and crop yields under salt stress. The interaction between NO/ETH, and N- and S-assimilation, and their assimilatory products makes this approach novel. Thus, the study of the interaction between NO/ETH and N and S is essential as efficient utilization of these nutrients under the influence of these phytohormones will not only benefit photosynthetic and yield potential of plants, but also will result in salt tolerance through the higher synthesis of metabolites. Additionally, the loss of nutrients will be reduced, thereby saving our expenditure on the production of these fertilizers
.

References

  1. Sehar, Z.; Masood, A.; Khan, N.A.; Nitric oxide reverses glucose-mediated photosynthetic repression in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under salt stress. Environmental and Experimental Botany 2019, 161, 277-289, 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2019.01.010.Sehar, Z.; Masood, A.; Khan, N.A. Nitric oxide reverses glucose-mediated photosynthetic repression in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under salt stress. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2019, 161, 277–289.
  2. Jahan, B.; Al Ajmi, M.F.; Rehman, M.T.; Khan, N.A.; Nitric oxide regulates photosynthetic performance and stomatal behaviour supplemented with nitrogen and sulfur in mustard under salt stress. Physiologia Plantarum 2019, 168, 490-510, 10.1111/ppl.13056.Jahan, B.; Al Ajmi, M.F.; Rehman, M.T.; Khan, N.A. Treatment of nitric oxide supplemented with nitrogen and sulfur regulates photosynthetic performance and stomatal behavior in mustard under salt stress. Physiol. Plant. 2020, 168, 490–510.
  3. Khanna, R.R.; Jahan, B.; Iqbal, N.; Khan, N.A.; AlAjmi, M.F.; Rehman, M.T.; Khan, M.I.R.; GABA reverses salt‐inhibited photosynthetic and growth responses through its influence on NO‐mediated nitrogen‐sulfur assimilation and antioxidant system in wheat. Journal of Biotechology 2021, 325, 73-82, 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2020.11.015.Khanna, R.R.; Jahan, B.; Iqbal, N.; Khan, N.A.; AlAjmi, M.F.; Rehman, M.T.; Khan, M.I.R. GABA reverses salt-inhibited photosynthetic and growth responses through its influence on NO-mediated nitrogen-sulfur assimilation and antioxidant system in wheat. J. Biotech. 2021, 325, 73–82.
  4. AbdElgawad, H.; Zinta, G.; Hegab, M.M.; Pandey, R.; Asard, H.; Abuelsoud,W; High Salinity Induces Different Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Responses in Maize Seedlings Organs. Frontiers in Plant Science 2016, 7, 276, 10.3389/fpls.2016.00276.Machado, R.M.A.; Serralheiro, R.P. Soil salinity: Effect on vegetable crop growth. Management practices to prevent and mitigate soil salinization. Horticulturae 2017, 3, 30.
  5. Wawrzyńska, A.; Sirko, A; To control and to be controlled: understanding the Arabidopsis SLIM1 function in sulfur deficiency through comprehensive investigation of the EIL protein family. Frontiers in Plant Science 2014, 5, 575, 10.3389/fpls.2014.00575.Hasanuzzaman, M.; Nahar, K.; Alam, M.; Bhowmik, P.C.; Hossain, M.; Rahman, M.M.; Fujita, M. Potential use of halophytes to remediate saline soils. Biomed. Res. Int. 2014, 2014, 589341.
  6. Kumar, P.; Sharma, P.K.; Soil Salinity and Food Security in India. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 2020, 4, 533781, 10.3389/fsufs.2020.533781.Kumar, P.; Sharma, P.K. Soil salinity and food security in India. Front. Sustain. Syst. 2020, 4, 533781.
  7. Chokshi, K.; Pancha, I.; Ghosh, A.; Mishra, S.; Salinity induced oxidative stress alters the physiological responses and improves the biofuel potential of green microalgae Acutodesmus dimorphus. Bioresource Technology 2017, 244, 1376-1383, 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.05.003.Chokshi, K.; Pancha, I.; Ghosh, A.; Mishra, S. Salinity induced oxidative stress alters the physiological responses and improves the biofuel potential of green microalgae Acutodesmus dimorphus. Bioresour. Technol. 2017, 244, 1376–1383.
  8. Kamran, M.; Parveen, A.; Ahmar, S.; Malik, Z.; Hussain, S.; Chattha, M.S.; Chen, J.T.; An Overview of Hazardous Impacts of Soil Salinity in Crops, Tolerance Mechanisms, and Amelioration through Selenium Supplementation. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2019, 21, 148, 10.3390/ijms21010148.Kamran, M.; Parveen, A.; Ahmar, S.; Malik, Z.; Hussain, S.; Chattha, M.S.; Chen, J.T. An overview of hazardous impacts of soil salinity in crops, tolerance mechanisms, and amelioration through selenium supplementation. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 148.
  9. Fatma, M.; Khan, M.I.R.; Masood, A.; Khan, N.A.; Coordinate changes in assimilatory sulfate reduction are correlated to salt tolerance: Involvement of phytohormones.. Annual Review & Research in Biology 2013, 3, 267-295.Fatma, M.; Khan, M.I.R.; Masood, A.; Khan, N.A. Coordinate changes in assimilatory sulfate reduction are correlated to salt tolerance: Involvement of phytohormones. Annu. Res. Rev. Biol. 2013, 3, 267–295.
  10. Jahan, B.; Iqbal, N.; Fatma, M.; Sehar, Z.; Masood, A.; Sofo, A.; D’Ippolito, I.; Khan, N.A; Ethylene supplementation combined with split application of nitrogen and sulfur protects salt-inhibited photosynthesis through optimization of proline metabolism and antioxidant system in mustard (Brassica juncea L.). Plants 2021, 10, 1303, 10.3390/plants10071303.Jahan, B.; Iqbal, N.; Fatma, M.; Sehar, Z.; Masood, A.; Sofo, A.; D’Ippolito, I.; Khan, N.A. Ethylene supplementation combined with split application of nitrogen and sulfur protects salt-inhibited photosynthesis through optimization of proline metabolism and antioxidant system in mustard (Brassica juncea L.). Plants 2021, 10, 1303.
  11. Cuiyu Liu; Xueqing Zhao; Junxin Yan; Zhaohe Yuan; Mengmeng Gu; Effects of Salt Stress on Growth, Photosynthesis, and Mineral Nutrients of 18 Pomegranate (Punica granatum) Cultivars. Agronomy 2019, 10, 27, 10.3390/agronomy10010027.Liu, C.; Zhao, X.; Yan, J.; Yuan, Z.; Gu, M. Effects of salt stress on growth, photosynthesis, and mineral nutrients of 18 pomegranate (Punica granatum) cultivars. Agronomy 2020, 10, 27.
  12. Yujie Qiao; Lina Yin; Bomei Wang; Qingbo Ke; Xiping Deng; Shiwen Wang; Melatonin promotes plant growth by increasing nitrogen uptake and assimilation under nitrogen deficient condition in winter wheat. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 2019, 139, 342-349, 10.1016/j.plaphy.2019.03.037.Qiao, Y.; Yin, L.; Wang, B.; Ke, Q.; Deng, X.; Wang, S. Melatonin promotes plant growth by increasing nitrogen uptake and assimilation under nitrogen deficient condition in winter wheat. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2019, 139, 342–349.
  13. Xu, G.; Fan, X.; Miller, A.J.; Plant nitrogen assimilation and use efficiency. Annual Review of Plant Biology 2012, 63, 153-182, 10.1146/annurev-arplant-042811-105532.Xu, G.; Fan, X.; Miller, A.J. Plant nitrogen assimilation and use efficiency. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 2012, 63, 153–182.
  14. Wang, Y.; Wang, M.; Li, Y.; Wu, A.; Huang, J; Effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on growth and nitrogen uptake of Chrysanthemum morifolium under salt stress. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0196408, 10.1371/journal.pone.0196408.Wang, Y.; Wang, M.; Li, Y.; Wu, A.; Huang, J. Effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on growth and nitrogen uptake of Chrysanthemum morifolium under salt stress. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0196408.
  15. Hussain, S.J.; Khan, N.A.; Anjum, N.A.; Masood, A.; Khan, M.I.R.; Mechanistic Elucidation of Salicylic Acid and Sulphur-Induced Defence Systems, Nitrogen Metabolism, Photosynthetic, and Growth Potential of Mungbean (Vigna radiata) Under Salt Stress. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation 2020, 40, 1000-1016, 10.1007/s00344-020-10159-4.Hussain, S.J.; Khan, N.A.; Anjum, N.A.; Masood, A.; Khan, M.I.R. Mechanistic elucidation of salicylic acid and sulphur-induced defence systems, nitrogen metabolism, photosynthetic, and growth potential of mungbean (Vigna radiata) under salt stress. J. Plant Growth Regul. 2021, 40, 1000–1016.
  16. Fatma, M.; Iqbal, N.; Gautam, H.; Sehar, Z.; Sofo, A.; D’Ippolito, I.; Khan, N.A; Ethylene and Sulfur Coordinately Modulate the Antioxidant System and ABA Accumulation in Mustard Plants Under Salt Stress. Plants 2021, 10, 180, 10.3390/plants10010180.Fatma, M.; Iqbal, N.; Gautam, H.; Sehar, Z.; Sofo, A.; D’Ippolito, I.; Khan, N.A. Ethylene and sulfur coordinately modulate the antioxidant system and ABA accumulation in mustard plants under salt stress. Plants 2021, 10, 180.
  17. Fatma, M.; Masood, A.; Per, T.S.; Khan, N.A; Nitric Oxide Alleviates Salt Stress Inhibited Photosynthetic Performance by Interacting with Sulfur Assimilation in Mustard. Frontiers in Plant Science 2016, 7, 521-521, 10.3389/fpls.2016.00521.Fatma, M.; Masood, A.; Per, T.S.; Khan, N.A. Nitric oxide alleviates salt stress inhibited photosynthetic performance by interacting with sulfur assimilation in mustard. Front. Plant Sci. 2016, 7, 521.
  18. Asgher, M.; Per, T.S.; Masood, A.; Fatma, M.; Freschi, L.; Corpas, F.J.; Khan, N.A; Nitric oxide signaling and its crosstalk with other plant growth regulators in plant responses to abiotic stress. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2016, 24, 2273-2285, 10.1007/s11356-016-7947-8.Asgher, M.; Per, T.S.; Masood, A.; Fatma, M.; Freschi, L.; Corpas, F.J.; Khan, N.A. Nitric oxide signaling and its crosstalk with other plant growth regulators in plant responses to abiotic stress. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2017, 24, 2273–2285.
  19. Per, T.S.; Khan, N.A.; Reddy, P.S.; Masood, A.; Hasanuzzaman, M.; Khan, M.I.R.; Anjum, N.A; Approaches in modulating proline metabolism in plants for salt and drought stress tolerance: Phytohormones, mineral nutrients and transgenics. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 2017, 115, 126-140, 10.1016/j.plaphy.2017.03.018.Per, T.S.; Khan, N.A.; Reddy, P.S.; Masood, A.; Hasanuzzaman, M.; Khan, M.I.R.; Anjum, N.A. Approaches in modulating proline metabolism in plants for salt and drought stress tolerance, Phytohormones, mineral nutrients and transgenics. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2017, 115, 126–140.
  20. Hasanuzzaman, M.; Oku, H.; Nahar, K.; Bhuyan, M.B.; Al Mahmud, J.; Baluska, F.; Fujita, M; Nitric oxide-induced salt stress tolerance in plants: ROS metabolism, signaling, and molecular interactions. Plant Biotechnology Reports 2018, 12, 77-92, 10.1007/s11816-018-0480-0.Hasanuzzaman, M.; Oku, H.; Nahar, K.; Bhuyan, M.B.; Al Mahmud, J.; Baluska, F.; Fujita, M. Nitric oxide-induced salt stress tolerance in plants: ROS metabolism, signaling, and molecular interactions. Plant Biotechnol. Rep. 2018, 12, 77–92.
  21. Borbély, P.; Poór, P.; Tari, I; Changes in physiological and photosynthetic parameters in tomato of different ethylene status under salt stress: Effects of exogenous 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid treatment and the inhibition of ethylene signalling. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 2020, 156, 345-356, 10.1016/j.plaphy.2020.09.019.Borbély, P.; Poór, P.; Tari, I. Changes in physiological and photosynthetic parameters in tomato of different ethylene status under salt stress: Effects of exogenous 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid treatment and the inhibition of ethylene signalling. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2020, 156, 345–356.
  22. Sehar, Z.; Iqbal, N.; Khan, M.I.R.; Masood, A.; Rehman, M.T.; Hussain, A.; AlAjmi, M.F.; Ahmad, A.; Khan, N.A; Ethylene reduces glucose sensitivity and reverses photosynthetic repression through optimization of glutathione production in salt-stressed wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Scientific Reports 2021, 11, 1-12, 10.1038/s41598-021-92086-2.Sehar, Z.; Iqbal, N.; Khan, M.I.R.; Masood, A.; Rehman, M.T.; Hussain, A.; AlAjmi, M.F.; Ahmad, A.; Khan, N.A. Ethylene reduces glucose sensitivity and reverses photosynthetic repression through optimization of glutathione production in salt-stressed wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 1–12.
  23. Iqbal, N.; Umar, S.; Khan, N.A.; Nitrogen availability regulates proline and ethylene production and alleviates salinity stress in mustard (Brassica juncea). Journal of Plant Physiology 2015, 178, 84-91, 10.1016/j.jplph.2015.02.006.Iqbal, N.; Umar, S.; Khan, N.A. Nitrogen availability regulates proline and ethylene production and alleviates salinity stress in mustard (Brassica juncea). J. Plant Physiol. 2015, 178, 84–91.
  24. Wicke, B.; Smeets, E.; Dornburg, V.; Vashev, B.; Gaiser, T.; Turkenburg, W.; Faaij, A; The global technical and economic potential of bioenergy from salt-affected soils. Energy & Environmental Science 2011, 4, 2669-2681, 10.1039/c1ee01029h.Xu, G.Y.; Rocha, P.S.; Wang, M.L.; Xu, M.L.; Cui, Y.C.; Li, L.Y.; Zhu, Y.X.; Xia, X. A novel rice calmodulin-like gene, OsMSR2, enhances drought and salt tolerance and increases ABA sensitivity in Arabidopsis. Planta 2011, 234, 47–59.
  25. Rasool, S.; Hameed, A.; Azooz, M.M.; Siddiqi, T.O.; Ahmad, P; Salt stress: Causes, types and responses of plants. In Ecophysiology and Responses of Plants under Salt Stress; Ahmad, P., Azooz, M.M., Prasad, M.N.V., Eds.; Springer Science & Business Media: New York, NY, USA 2012, 0, 1-24.Akbarimoghaddam, H.; Galavi, M.; Ghanbari, A.; Panjehkeh, N. Salinity effects on seed germination and seedling growth of bread wheat cultivars. Trakia J. Sci. 2011, 9, 43–50.
  26. Xu, G.Y.; Rocha, P.S.; Wang, M.L.; Xu, M.L.; Cui, Y.C.; Li, L.Y.; Zhu, Y.X.; Xia, X; A novel rice calmodulin-like gene, OsMSR2, enhances drought and salt tolerance and increases ABA sensitivity in Arabidopsis. Planta 2011, 234, 47-59, 10.1007/s00425-011-1386-z.Sharma, P.; Sardana, V.; Banga, S.S. Salt tolerance of Indian mustard (Brassicajuncea L.) at germination and early seedling growth. Environ. Exp. Biol. 2013, 11, 39–46.
  27. Akbarimoghaddam, H.; Galavi, M.; Ghanbari, A.; Panjehkeh, N; Salinity effects on seed germination and seedling growth of bread wheat cultivars. Trakia Journal of Sciences 2011, 9, 43-50.Chowdhury, F.T.; Halim, M.A.; Hossain, F.; Akhtar, N. Effects of sodium chloride on germination and seedling growth of Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). Jahangirnagar Uni. J. Biol Sci. 2018, 7, 35–44.
  28. Sharma, P.; Sardana, V.; Banga, S.S; Salt tolerance of Indian mustard (Brassicajuncea L.) at germination and early seedling growth. Environmental and Experimental Biology 2013, 11, 39-46.Rahneshan, Z.; Nasibi, F.; Moghadam, A.A. Effects of salinity stress on some growth, physiological, biochemical parameters and nutrients in two pistachio (Pistaciavera L.) rootstocks. J. Plant Interact. 2018, 13, 73–82.
  29. Chowdhury, F.T.; Halim, M.A.; Hossain, F.; Akhtar, N; Effects of sodium chloride on germination and seedling growth of Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). Jahangirnagar University Journal of Biological Sciences 2018, 7, 35-44, 10.3329/jujbs.v7i1.37972.Jaarsma, R.; de Vries, R.S.; de Boer, A.H. Effect of salt stress on growth, Na+ accumulation and proline metabolism in potato (Solanum tuberosum) cultivars. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e60183.
  30. Rahneshan, Z.; Nasibi, F.; Moghadam, A.A; Effects of salinity stress on some growth, physiological, biochemical parameters and nutrients in two pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) rootstocks. Journal of Plant Interactions 2018, 13, 73-82, 10.1080/17429145.2018.1424355.Faghire, M.; Mohamed, F.; Taoufiq, K.; Fghire, R.; Bargaz, A.; Mandri, B.; Oufdou, K.; Laury, A.; Drevon, J.J.; Ghoulam, C. Genotypic variation of nodules’ enzymatic activities in symbiotic nitrogen fixation among common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes grown under salinity constraint. Symbiosis 2013, 60, 115–122.
  31. Jaarsma, R.; de Vries, R.S.; de Boer, A.H; Effect of Salt Stress on Growth, Na+ Accumulation and Proline Metabolism in Potato (Solanum tuberosum) Cultivars. PLOS ONE 2013, 8, e60183, 10.1371/journal.pone.0060183.Latrach, L.; Farissi, M.; Mouradi, M.; Makoudi, B.; Bouizgaren, A.; Ghoulam, C. Growth and nodulation of alfalfa-rhizobia symbiosis under salinity: Electrolyte leakage, stomatal conductance, and chlorophyll fluorescence. Turk. J. Agric. For. 2014, 38, 320–326.
  32. Faghire, M.; Mohamed, F.; Taoufiq, K.; Fghire, R.; Bargaz, A.; Mandri, B.; Oufdou, K.; Laury, A.; Drevon, J.J.; Ghoulam, C; et al. Genotypic variation of nodules’ enzymatic activities in symbiotic nitrogen fixation among common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes grown under salinity constraint. Symbiosis 2013, 60, 115-122, 10.1007/s13199-013-0247-x.Javid, M.; Ford, R.; Norton, R.; Nicolas, M. Sodium and boron exclusion in two Brassica juncea cultivars exposed to the combined treatments of salinity and boron at moderate alkalinity. Biologia 2014, 69, 1157–1163.
  33. Latrach, L.; Farissi, M.; Mouradi, M.; Makoudi, B.; Bouizgaren, A.; Ghoulam, C; Growth and nodulation of alfalfa-rhizobia symbiosis under salinity: electrolyte leakage, stomatal conductance, and chlorophyll fluorescence. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 2014, 38, 320-326, 10.3906/tar-1305-52.Ghanem, A.E.; Mohamed, E.; Kasem, A.M.; El-Ghamery, A.A. Differential salt tolerance strategies in three halophytes from the same ecological habitat: Augmentation of antioxidant enzymes and compounds. Plants 2021, 10, 1100.
  34. Javid, M.; Ford, R.; Norton, R.; Nicolas, M; Sodium and boron exclusion in two Brassica juncea cultivars exposed to the combined treatments of salinity and boron at moderate alkalinity. Biologia 2014, 69, 1157-1163, 10.2478/s11756-014-0412-6.Li, H.; Chang, J.; Chen, H.; Wang, Z.; Gu, X.; Wei, C.; Zhang, Y.; Ma, J.; Yang, J.; Zhang, X. Exogenous melatonin confers salt stress tolerance to watermelon by improving photosynthesis and redox homeostasis. Front. Plant Sci. 2017, 8, 295.
  35. Ghanem, A.E.; Mohamed, E.; Kasem, A.M.; El-Ghamery, A.A; Differential Salt Tolerance Strategies in Three Halophytes from the Same Ecological Habitat: Augmentation of Antioxidant Enzymes and Compounds. Plants 2021, 10, 1100, 10.3390/plants10061100.Mahdieh, M.; Habibollahi, N.; Amirjani, M.R.; Abnosi, M.H.; Ghorbanpour, M. Exogenous silicon nutrition ameliorates salt-induced stress by improving growth and efficiency of PSII in Oryza sativa L. cultivars. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2015, 15, 1050–1060.
  36. Li, H.; Chang, J.; Chen, H.; Wang, Z.; Gu, X.; Wei, C.; Zhang, Y.; Ma, J.; Yang, J.; Zhang, X; et al. Exogenous Melatonin Confers Salt Stress Tolerance to Watermelon by Improving Photosynthesis and Redox Homeostasis. Frontiers in Plant Science 2017, 8, 295, 10.3389/fpls.2017.00295.Jiang, C.; Johkan, M.; Hohjo, M.; Tsukagoshi, S.; Maruo, T. A correlation analysis on chlorophyll content and SPAD value in tomato leaves. Hortic. Res. 2017, 71, 37–42.
  37. Mahdieh, M.; Habibollahi, N.; Amirjani, M.R.; Abnosi, M.H.; Ghorbanpour, M; Exogenous silicon nutrition ameliorates salt-induced stress by improving growth and efficiency of PSII in Oryza sativa L. cultivars. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 2015, 15, 1050-1060, 10.4067/s0718-95162015005000073.Mehta, P.; Jajoo, A.; Mathur, S.; Bharti, S. Chlorophyll a fluorescence study revealing effects of high salt stress on Photosystem II in wheat leaves. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2010, 48, 16–20.
  38. Jiang, C.; Johkan, M.; Hohjo, M.; Tsukagoshi, S.; Maruo, T; A correlation analysis on chlorophyll content and SPAD value in tomato leaves. Horticulture Research 2017, 71, 37-42, 10.20776/S18808824-71-P37.Kalaji, H.M.; Bosa, K.; Kościelniak, J.; Żuk-Gołaszewska, K. Effects of salt stress on photosystem II efficiency and CO2 assimilation of two Syrian barley landraces. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2011, 73, 64–72.
  39. Mehta, P.; Jajoo, A.; Mathur, S.; Bharti, S; Chlorophyll a fluorescence study revealing effects of high salt stress on Photosystem II in wheat leaves. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 2010, 48, 16-20, 10.1016/j.plaphy.2009.10.006.Fatma, M.; Iqbal, N.; Sehar, Z.; Alyemeni, M.N.; Kaushik, P.; Khan, N.A.; Ahmad, P. Methyl jasmonate protects the ps ii system by maintaining the stability of chloroplast d1 protein and accelerating enzymatic antioxidants in heat-stressed wheat plants. Antioxidants 2021, 10, 1216.
  40. Kalaji, H.M.; Bosa, K.; Kos´cielniak, J.; Z˙ uk-Gołaszewska, K; Effects of salt stress on photosystem II efficiency and CO2 assimilation of two Syrian barley landraces. Environmental and Experimental Botany 2011, 73, 64-72, 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2010.10.009.Singh, M.; Singh, V.P.; Prasad, S.M. Responses of photosynthesis, nitrogen and proline metabolism to salinity stress in Solanum lycopersicum under different levels of nitrogen supplementation. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2016, 109, 72–83.
  41. Fatma, M.; Iqbal, N.; Sehar, Z.; Alyemeni, M.N.; Kaushik, P.; Khan, N.A.; Ahmad, P; Methyl Jasmonate Protects the PS II System by Maintaining the Stability of Chloroplast D1 Protein and Accelerating Enzymatic Antioxidants in Heat-Stressed Wheat Plants. Antioxidants 2021, 10, 1216, 10.3390/antiox10081216.Nxele, X.; Klein, A.; Ndimba, B.K. Drought and salinity stress alters ROS accumulation, water retention, and osmolyte content in sorghum plants. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2017, 108, 261–266.
  42. Singh, M.; Singh, V.P.; Prasad, S.M; Responses of photosynthesis, nitrogen and proline metabolism to salinity stress in Solanum lycopersicum under different levels of nitrogen supplementation. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 2016, 109, 72-83, 10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.08.021.Aldesuquy, H.; Baka, Z.; Mickky, B. Kinetin and spermine mediated induction of salt tolerance in wheat plants: Leaf area, photosynthesis and chloroplast ultrastructure of flag leaf at ear emergence. Egypt. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 2014, 1, 77–87.
  43. Nxele, X.; Klein, A.; Ndimba, B.K; Drought and salinity stress alters ROS accumulation, water retention, and osmolyte content in sorghum plants. South African Journal of Botany 2017, 108, 261-266, 10.1016/j.sajb.2016.11.003.Wu, X.; Zhu, Z.; Li, X.; Zha, D. Effects of cytokinin on photosynthetic gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters and antioxidative system in seedlings of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) under salinity stress. Acta Physiol. Plant. 2012, 34, 2105–2114.
  44. Aldesuquy, H.; Baka, Z.; Mickky, B; Kinetin and spermine mediated induction of salt tolerance in wheat plants: Leaf area, photosynthesis and chloroplast ultrastructure of flag leaf at ear emergence. Egyptian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 2014, 1, 77-87, 10.1016/j.ejbas.2014.03.002.Hussain, S.; Bai, Z.; Huang, J.; Cao, X.; Zhu, L.; Zhu, C.; Zhang, J. 1-Methylcyclopropene modulates physiological, biochemical, and antioxidant responses of rice to different salt stress levels. Front. Plant Sci. 2019, 10, 124.
  45. Wu, X.; Zhu, Z.; Li, X.; Zha, D; Effects of cytokinin on photosynthetic gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters and antioxidative system in seedlings of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) under salinity stress. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum 2012, 34, 2105-2114, 10.1007/s11738-012-1010-2.Khalid, A.; Athar, H.U.R.; Zafar, Z.U.; Akram, A.; Hussain, K.; Manzoor, H.; Al-Qurainy, F.; Ashraf, M. Photosynthetic capacity of canola (Brassica napus L.) plants as affected by glycinebetaine under salt stress. J. Appl. Bot. Food Qual. 2015, 88, 78–86.
  46. Hussain, S.; Bai, Z.; Huang, J.; Cao, X.; Zhu, L.; Zhu, C.; Zhang, J; 1-Methylcyclopropene Modulates Physiological, Biochemical, and Antioxidant Responses of Rice to Different Salt Stress Levels. Frontiers in Plant Science 2019, 10, 124, 10.3389/fpls.2019.00124.Anjum, N.A.; Sofo, A.; Scopa, A.; Roychoudhury, A.; Gill, S.S.; Iqbal, M.; Ahmad, I.; Lukatkin, A.S.; Pereira, E.; Durate, A.C.; et al. Lipids and proteins-major targets of oxidative modifications in abiotic stressed plants. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2015, 22, 4099–4121.
  47. Khalid, A.; Athar, H.U.R.; Zafar, Z.U.; Akram, A.; Hussain, K.; Manzoor, H.; Al-Qurainy, F.; Ashraf, M; Photosynthetic capacity of canola (Brassica napus L.) plants as affected by glycinebetaine under the salt stress. Journal of Applied Botany and Food Quality 2015, 88, 78-86, 10.5073/jabfq.2015.088.011.Tammam, A.A.; Fakhry, E.M.; El-Sheekh, M. Effect of salt stress on antioxidant system and the metabolism of the reactive oxygen species in Dunaliellasalina and Dunaliellatertiolecta. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2011, 10, 3795–3808.
  48. Anjum, N.A.; Sofo, A.; Scopa, A.; Roychoudhury, A.; Gill, S.S.; Iqbal, M.; Ahmad, I.; Lukatkin, A.S.; Pereira, E.; Durate, A.C.; et al.et al Lipids and proteins—major targets of oxidative modifications in abiotic stressed plants. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2014, 22, 4099-4121, 10.1007/s11356-014-3917-1.AbdElgawad, H.; Zinta, G.; Hegab, M.M.; Pandey, R.; Asard, H.; Abuelsoud, W. High salinity induces different oxidative stress and antioxidant responses in maize seedlings organs. Front. Plant Sci. 2016, 7, 276.
  49. Tammam, A.A.; Fakhry, E.M.; El-Sheekh, M; Effect of salt stress on antioxidant system and the metabolism of the reactive oxygen species in Dunaliellasalina and Dunaliella tertiolecta. African Journal of Biotechnology 2011, 10, 3795-3808, 10.5897/AJB10.2392.Sofo, A.; Scopa, A.; Nuzzaci, M.; Vitti, A. Ascorbate peroxidase and catalase activities and their genetic regulation in plants subjected to drought and salinity stresses. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16, 13561–13578.
  50. AbdElgawad, H.; Zinta, G.; Hegab, M.M.; Pandey, R.; Asard, H.; Abuelsoud,W; High Salinity Induces Different Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Responses in Maize Seedlings Organs. Frontiers in Plant Science 2016, 7, 276, 10.3389/fpls.2016.00276.Weisany, W.; Sohrabi, Y.; Heidari, G.; Siosemardeh, A.; Ghassemi-Golezani, K. Changes in antioxidant enzymes activity and plant performance by salinity stress and zinc application in soybean (‘Glycine max’ L.). Plant Omics 2012, 5, 60–67.
  51. Sofo, A.; Scopa, A.; Nuzzaci, M.; Vitti, A; Ascorbate Peroxidase and Catalase Activities and Their Genetic Regulation in Plants Subjected to Drought and Salinity Stresses. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2015, 16, 13561-13578, 10.3390/ijms160613561.Patel, A.D.; Jadeja, H.; Pandey, A.M. Effect of salinization of soil on growth, water status and nutrient accumulation in seedlings of Acacia auriculiformis (Fabaceae). J. Plant Nutr. 2010, 33, 914–932.
  52. Weisany, W.; Sohrabi, Y.; Heidari, G.; Siosemardeh, A.; Ghassemi‐Golezani, K; Changes in antioxidant enzymes activity and plant performance by salinity stress and zinc application in soybean (‘Glycine max’ L.). Plant Omics 2012, 5, 60-67.Parihar, P.; Singh, S.; Singh, R.; Singh, V.P.; Prasad, S.M. Effect of salinity stress on plants and its tolerance strategies, a review. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2015, 22, 4056–4075.
  53. Patel, A.D.; Jadeja, H.; Pandey, A.M; Effect of salinization of soil on growth, water status and nutrient accumulation in seedlings of Acacia auriculiformis (Fabaceae). Journal of Plant Nutrition 2010, 33, 914-932, 10.1080/01904161003669939.Ashraf, M.; Shahzad, S.M.; Imtiaz, M.; Rizwan, M.S.; Arif, M.S.; Kausar, R. Nitrogen nutrition and adaptation of glycophytes to saline environment: A review. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci. 2018, 64, 1181–1206.
  54. Parihar, P.; Singh, S.; Singh, R.; Singh, V.P.; Prasad, S.M; Effect of salinity stress on plants and its tolerance strategies: a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2014, 22, 4056-4075, 10.1007/s11356-014-3739-1.Rasheed, F.; Anjum, N.A.; Masood, A.; Sofo, A.; Khan, N.A. The key roles of salicylic acid and sulfur in plant salinity stress tolerance. J. Plant Growth Regul. 2020, 1–14.
  55. Ashraf, M.; Shahzad, S.M.; Imtiaz, M.; Rizwan, M.S.; Arif, M.S.; Kausar, R; Nitrogen nutrition and adaptation of glycophytes to saline environment: A review. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science 2018, 64, 1181-1206, 10.1080/03650340.2017.1419571.Wu, H.; Zhang, X.; Giraldo, J.P.; Shabala, S. It is not all about sodium: Revealing tissue specificity and signalling roles of potassium in plant responses to salt stress. Plant Soil 2018, 431, 1–17.
  56. Rasheed, F.; Anjum, N.A.; Masood, A.; Sofo, A.; Khan, N.A; The key roles of salicylic acid and sulfur in plant salinity stress tolerance. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation 2020, 1, 1-14, 10.1007/s00344-020-10257-3.Wu, H.; Zhu, M.; Shabala, L.; Zhou, M.; Shabala, S. K+ retention in leaf mesophyll, an overlooked component of salinity tolerance mechanism: A case study for barley. J. Integr. Plant Biol. 2015, 57, 171–185.
  57. Wu, H.; Zhang, X.; Giraldo, J.P.; Shabala, S; It is not all about sodium: revealing tissue specificity and signalling roles of potassium in plant responses to salt stress. Plant and Soil 2018, 431, 1-17, 10.1007/s11104-018-3770-y.Tabassum, T.; Farooq, M.; Ahmad, R.; Zohaib, A.; Wahid, A. Seed priming and transgenerational drought memory improves tolerance against salt stress in bread wheat. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2017, 118, 362–369.
  58. Wu, H.; Zhu, M.; Shabala, L.; Zhou, M.; Shabala, S; K+ retention in leaf mesophyll, an overlooked component of salinity tolerance mechanism: A case study for barley. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology 2014, 57, 171-185, 10.1111/jipb.12238.Fahad, S.; Hussain, S.; Saud, S.; Hassan, S.; Tanveer, M.; Ihsan, M.Z.; Shah, A.N.; Ullah, A.; Khan, F.; Ullah, S.; et al. A combined application of biochar and phosphorus alleviates heat-induced adversities on physiological, agronomical and quality attributes of rice. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2016, 103, 191–198.
  59. Tabassum, T.; Farooq, M.; Ahmad, R.; Zohaib, A.; Wahid, A; Seed priming and transgenerational drought memory improves tolerance against salt stress in bread wheat. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 2017, 118, 362-369, 10.1016/j.plaphy.2017.07.007.Tang, H.; Niu, L.; Wei, J.; Chen, X.; Chen, Y. Phosphorus limitation improved salt tolerance in maize through tissue mass density increase, osmolytes accumulation, and Na+ uptake inhibition. Front. Plant Sci. 2019, 10, 856.
  60. Fahad, S.; Hussain, S.; Saud, S.; Hassan, S.; Tanveer, M.; Ihsan, M.Z.; Shah, A.N.; Ullah, A.; Khan, F.; Ullah, S.; et al.et al A combined application of biochar and phosphorus alleviates heat-induced adversities on physiological, agronomical and quality attributes of rice. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 2016, 103, 191-198, 10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.03.001.Zörb, C.; Geilfus, C.M.; Dietz, K.J. Salinity and crop yield. Plant Biol. 2019, 21, 31–38.
  61. Tang, H.; Niu, L.; Wei, J.; Chen, X.; Chen, Y; Phosphorus Limitation Improved Salt Tolerance in Maize Through Tissue Mass Density Increase, Osmolytes Accumulation, and Na+ Uptake Inhibition. Frontiers in Plant Science 2019, 10, 856, 10.3389/fpls.2019.00856.Wani, A.S.; Ahmad, A.; Hayat, S.; Tahir, I. Epibrassinolide and proline alleviate the photosynthetic and yield inhibition under salt stress by acting on antioxidant system in mustard. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2019, 135, 385–394.
  62. Zörb, C.; Geilfus, C.M.; Dietz, K.J; Salinity and crop yield. Plant Biology 2019, 21, 31-38.Hasanuzzaman, M.; Nahar, K.; Fujita, M. Plant response to salt stress and role of exogenous protectants to mitigate salt-induced damages. In Ecophysiology and Responses of Plants under Salt Stress; Ahmad, P., Azooz, M.M., Prasad, M.N.V., Eds.; Springer Science & Business Media: New York, NY, USA, 2012; pp. 25–87.
  63. Wani, A.S.; Ahmad, A.; Hayat, S.; Tahir, I; Epibrassinolide and proline alleviate the photosynthetic and yield inhibition under salt stress by acting on antioxidant system in mustard. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 2019, 135, 385-394, 10.1016/j.plaphy.2019.01.002.Breseghello, F.; Coelho, A.S.G. Traditional and modern plant breeding methods with examples in rice (Oryza sativa L.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013, 61, 8277–8286.
  64. Hasanuzzaman, M.; Nahar, K.; Fujita, M.; Plant Response to Salt Stress and Role of Exogenous Protectants to Mitigate Salt-Induced Damages. In Ecophysiology and responses of plants under salt stress (pp. 25-87). Springer, New York, NY 2012, ., pp. 25-87, 10.1007/978-1-4614-4747-4_2.Ashfaque, F.; Khan, M.I.R.; Khan, N.A. Exogenously applied H2O2 promotes proline accumulation, water relations, photosynthetic efficiency and growth of wheat (Triticumaestivum L.) under salt stress. Annu. Res. Rev. Biol. 2014, 4, 105–120.
  65. Breseghello, F.; Coelho, A.S.G; Traditional and Modern Plant Breeding Methods with Examples in Rice (Oryza sativa L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2013, 61, 8277-8286, 10.1021/jf305531j.Nazar, R.; Iqbal, N.; Syeed, S.; Khan, N.A. Salicylic acid alleviates decreases in photosynthesis under salt stress by enhancing nitrogen and sulfur assimilation and antioxidant metabolism differentially in two mungbean cultivars. J. Plant Physiol. 2011, 168, 807–815.
  66. Ashfaque, F.; Khan, M.I.R.; Khan, N.A; Exogenously applied H2O2 promotes proline accumulation, water relations, photosynthetic efficiency and growth of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under salt stress. Annual Research & Review in Biology 2014, 4, 105-120.Astolfi, S.; Zuchi, S. Adequate S supply protects barley plants from adverse effects of salinity stress by increasing thiol contents. Acta Physiol. Plant. 2013, 35, 175–181.
  67. Nazar, R.; Iqbal, N.; Syeed, S.; Khan, N.A; Salicylic acid alleviates decreases in photosynthesis under salt stress by enhancing nitrogen and sulfur assimilation and antioxidant metabolism differentially in two mungbean cultivars. Journal of Plant Physiology 2011, 168, 807-815, 10.1016/j.jplph.2010.11.001.The, C.Y.; Shaharuddin, N.A.; Ho, C.L.; Mahmood, M. Exogenous proline significantly affects the plant growth and nitrogen assimilation enzymes activities in rice (Oryza sativa) under salt stress. Acta Physiol. Plant. 2016, 38, 151.
  68. Astolfi, S.; Zuchi, S; Adequate S supply protects barley plants from adverse effects of salinity stress by increasing thiol contents. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum 2012, 35, 175-181, 10.1007/s11738-012-1060-5.Fuertes-Mendizábal, T.; Bastías, E.I.; González-Murua, C.; González-Moro, M. Nitrogen assimilation in the highly salt and boron-tolerant ecotype Zea mays L. Amylacea. Plants 2020, 9, 322.
  69. The, C.Y.; Shaharuddin, N.A.; Ho, C.L.; Mahmood, M; Exogenous proline significantly affects the plant growth and nitrogen assimilation enzymes activities in rice (Oryza sativa) under salt stress. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum 2016, 38, 1-10, 10.1007/s11738-016-2163-1.Goel, P.; Singh, A.K. Abiotic stresses downregulate key genes involved in nitrogen uptake and assimilation in Brassica juncea L. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0143645.
  70. Fuertes‐Mendizábal, T.; Bastías, E.I.; González‐Murua, C.; González‐Moro, M; Nitrogen Assimilation in the Highly Salt- and Boron-Tolerant Ecotype Zea mays L. Amylacea. Plants 2020, 9, 322, 10.3390/plants9030322.Ahanger, M.A.; Qin, C.; Begum, N.; Maodong, Q.; Dong, X.X.; El-Esawi, M.; El-Sheikh, M.A.; Alatar, A.A.; Zhang, L. Nitrogen availability prevents oxidative effects of salinity on wheat growth and photosynthesis by up-regulating the antioxidants and osmolytes metabolism.; and secondary metabolite accumulation. BMC Plant Biol. 2019, 19, 479.
  71. Goel, P.; Singh, A.K; Abiotic Stresses Downregulate Key Genes Involved in Nitrogen Uptake and Assimilation in Brassica juncea L.. PLOS ONE 2015, 10, e0143645-e0143645, 10.1371/journal.pone.0143645.Singh, A.; Hussain, I.; Singh, N.B.; Singh, H. Uptake, translocation and impact of green synthesized nanoceria on growth and antioxidant enzymes activity of Solanum lycopersicum L. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2019, 182, 109410.
  72. Ahanger, M.A.; Qin, C.; Begum, N.; Maodong, Q.; Dong, X.X.; El‐Esawi, M.; El‐Sheikh, M.A.; Alatar, A.A.; Zhang, L; Nitrogen availability prevents oxidative effects of salinity on wheat growth and photosynthesis by up-regulating the antioxidants and osmolytes metabolism, and secondary metabolite accumulation.. BMC Plant Biology 2019, 19, 479-12, 10.1186/s12870-019-2085-3.Coelho, D.G.; Miranda, R.D.S.; Paula-Marinho, S.D.O.; de Carvalho, H.H.; Prisco, J.T.; Gomes-Filho, E. Ammonium nutrition modulates K+ and N uptake, transport and accumulation during salt stress acclimation of sorghum plants. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci. 2020, 66, 1991–2004.
  73. Singh, A.; Hussain, I.; Singh, N.B.; Singh, H; Uptake, translocation and impact of green synthesized nanoceria on growth and antioxidant enzymes activity of Solanum lycopersicum L.. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 2019, 182, 109410, 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.109410.Soliman, M.; Elkelish, A.; Souad, T.; Alhaithloul, H.; Farooq, M. Brassinosteroid seed priming with nitrogen supplementation improves salt tolerance in soybean. Physiol. Mol. Biol. Plants 2020, 26, 501–511.
  74. Coelho, D.G.; Miranda, R.D.S.; Paula‐Marinho, S.D.O.; de Carvalho, H.H.; Prisco, J.T.; Gomes‐Filho, E; Ammonium nutrition modulates K+ and N uptake, transport and accumulation during salt stress acclimation of sorghum plants. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science 2020, 66, 1991-2004, 10.1080/03650340.2019.1704736.Per, T.S.; Khan, N.A.; Masood, A.; Fatma, M. Methyl jasmonate alleviates cadmium-induced photosynthetic damages through increased S-assimilation and glutathione production in mustard. Front. Plant Sci. 2016, 7, 1933.
  75. Soliman, M.; Elkelish, A.; Souad, T.; Alhaithloul, H.; Farooq, M; Brassinosteroid seed priming with nitrogen supplementation improves salt tolerance in soybean. Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants 2020, 26, 501-511, 10.1007/s12298-020-00765-7.Fatma, M.; Masood, A.; Per, T.S.; Rasheed, F.; Khan, N.A. Interplay between nitric oxide and sulfur assimilation in salt tolerance in plants. Crop J. 2016, 4, 153–161.
  76. Per, T.S.; Khan, N.A.; Masood, A.; Fatma, M; Methyl Jasmonate Alleviates Cadmium-Induced Photosynthetic Damages through Increased S-Assimilation and Glutathione Production in Mustard. Frontiers in Plant Science 2016, 7, 1933, 10.3389/fpls.2016.01933.Fatma, M.; Asgher, M.; Masood, A.; Khan, N.A. Excess sulfur supplementation improves photosynthesis and growth in mustard under salt stress through increased production of glutathione. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2014, 107, 55–63.
  77. Fatma, M.; Masood, A.; Per, T.S.; Rasheed, F.; Khan, N.A; Interplay between nitric oxide and sulfur assimilation in salt tolerance in plants. The Crop Journal 2016, 4, 153-161, 10.1016/j.cj.2016.01.009.Seth, C.S.; Remans, T.; Keunen, E.; Jozefczak, M.; Gielen, H.; Opdenakker, K.; Cuypers, A. Phytoextraction of toxic metals: A central role for glutathione. Plant Cell Environ. 2012, 35, 334–346.
  78. Fatma, M.; Asgher, M.; Masood, A.; Khan, N.A; Excess sulfur supplementation improves photosynthesis and growth in mustard under salt stress through increased production of glutathione. Environmental and Experimental Botany 2014, 107, 55-63, 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2014.05.008.Kumar, D.; Chattopadhyay, S. Glutathione modulates the expression of heat shock proteins via the transcription factors BZIP10 and MYB21 in Arabidopsis. J. Exp. Bot. 2018, 69, 3729–3743.
  79. Seth, C.S.; Remans, T.; Keunen, E.; Jozefczak, M.; Gielen, H.; Opdenakker, K.; Cuypers, A; Phytoextraction of toxic metals: A central role for glutathione. Plant Cell Environ 2012, 35, 334-346.Iqbal, N.; Umar, S.; Khan, N.A.; Corpas, F.J. Nitric oxide and hydrogen sulfide coordinately reduce glucose sensitivity and decrease oxidative stress via ascorbate-glutathione cycle in heat-stressed wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants. Antioxidants 2021, 10, 108.
  80. Kumar, D.; Chattopadhyay, S; Glutathione modulates the expression of heat shock proteins via the transcription factors BZIP10 and MYB21 in Arabidopsis. Journal of Experimental Botany 2018, 69, 3729-3743, 10.1093/jxb/ery166.Mera, R.; Torres, E.; Abalde, J. Sulphate.; more than a nutrient; protects the microalga Chlamydomonas moewusii from cadmium toxicity. Aquat. Toxicol. 2014, 148, 92–103.
  81. Iqbal, N.; Umar, S.; Khan, N.A.; Corpas, F.J; Nitric Oxide and Hydrogen Sulfide Coordinately Reduce Glucose Sensitivity and Decrease Oxidative Stress via Ascorbate-Glutathione Cycle in Heat-Stressed Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Plants. Antioxidants 2021, 10, 108, 10.3390/antiox10010108.Romero, T.C.; Nortes, T.P.A.; Pedrero, S.F.; Mounzer, O.; Alarcón, C.J.J.; Bayona, G.J.M.; Nicolás, N.E. Assessment of the viability of using saline reclaimed water in grapefruit in medium to long term. Span. J. Agric. Res. 2014, 12, 1137–1148.
  82. Mera, R.; Torres, E.; Abalde, J; Sulphate, more than a nutrient, protects the microalga Chlamydomonas moewusii from cadmium toxicity. Aquatic Toxicology 2014, 148, 92-103, 10.1016/j.aquatox.2013.12.034.Riffat, A.L.I.A.; Sajid, M.; Ahmad, A. Alleviation of adverse effects of salt stress on growth og maize Zea mays L. by sulfur supplementation. Pak. J. Bot. 2020, 523, 763–773.
  83. Romero, T.C.; Nortes, T.P.A.; Pedrero, S.F.; Mounzer, O.; Alarcón, C.J.J.; Bayona, G.J.M.; Nicolás, N.E; Assessment of the viability of using saline reclaimed water in grapefruit in medium to long term. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research 2014, 12, 1137-1148, 10.5424/sjar/2014124-5495.de Souza Freitas, W.E.; de Oliveira, A.B.; Mesquita, R.O.; de Carvalho, H.H.; Prisco, J.T.; Gomes-Filho, E. Sulfur-induced salinity tolerance in lettuce is due to a better P and K uptake.; lower Na/K ratio and an efficient antioxidative defense system. Sci. Hortic. 2019, 257, 108764.
  84. Riffat, A.L.I.A.; Sajid, M.; Ahmad, A; Alleviation of adverse effects of salt stress on growth og maize Zea mays L. by sulfur supplementation. Pakistan Journal of Botany 2020, 523, 763-773.Aziz, A.; Ashraf, M.; Sikandar, S.; Asif, M.; Akhtar, N.; Shahzad, S.M.; Babar, B.H. Optimizing sulfur for improving salt tolerance of sunflower Helianthus annuus L. Soil Environ. 2019, 38, 222–233.
  85. de Souza Freitas, W.E.; de Oliveira, A.B.; Mesquita, R.O.; de Carvalho, H.H.; Prisco, J.T.; Gomes‐Filho, E; Sulfur-induced salinity tolerance in lettuce is due to a better P and K uptake, lower Na/K ratio and an efficient antioxidative defense system. Scientia Horticulturae 2019, 257, 108764, 10.1016/j.scienta.2019.108764.Coleto, I.; de la Peña, M.; Rodríguez-Escalante, J.; Bejarano, I.; Glauser, G.; Aparicio-Tejo, P.M.; Marino, D. Leaves play a central role in the adaptation of nitrogen and sulfur metabolism to ammonium nutrition in oilseed rape Brassica napus. BMC Plant Biol. 2017, 17, 1–13.
  86. Aziz, A.; Ashraf, M.; Sikandar, S.; Asif, M.; Akhtar, N.; Shahzad, S.M.; Babar, B.H; Optimizing sulfur for improving salt tolerance of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). Soil & Environment 2019, 38, 222-233, 10.25252/se/19/71647.Jobe, T.O.; Zenzen, I.; Rahimzadeh, K.P.; Kopriva, S. Integration of sulfate assimilation with carbon and nitrogen metabolism in transition from C3 to C4 photosynthesis. J. Exp. Bot. 2019, 70, 4211–4221.
  87. Coleto, I.; de la Peña, M.; Rodríguez‐Escalante, J.; Bejarano, I.; Glauser, G.; Aparicio‐Tejo, P.M.; Marino, D; Leaves play a central role in the adaptation of nitrogen and sulfur metabolism to ammonium nutrition in oilseed rape (Brassica napus). BMC Plant Biology 2017, 17, 1-13, 10.1186/s12870-017-1100-9.Prodhan, M.A.; Finnegan, P.M.; Lambers, H. How does evolution in phosphorus-impoverished landscapes impact plant nitrogen and sulfur assimilation? Trends Plant Sci. 2019, 24, 69–82.
  88. Jobe, T.O.; Zenzen, I.; Rahimzadeh, K.P.; Kopriva, S; Integration of sulfate assimilation with carbon and nitrogen metabolism in transition from C3 to C4 photosynthesis. Journal of Experimental Botany 2019, 70, 4211-4221, 10.1093/jxb/erz250.Rais, L.; Masood, A.; Inam, A.; Khan, N. Sulfur and nitrogen co-ordinately improve photosynthetic efficiency, growth and proline accumulation in two cultivars of mustard under salt stress. J. Plant Biochem. Physiol. 2013, 1.
  89. Prodhan, M.A.; Finnegan, P.M.; Lambers, H; How does evolution in phosphorus‐impoverished landscapes impact plant nitrogen and sulfur assimilation?. Trends of Plant Sciences 2019, 24, 69-82.Zhang, N.N.; Zou, H.; Lin, X.Y.; Pan, Q.; Zhang, W.Q.; Zhang, J.H.; Chen, J. Hydrogen sulfide and rhizobia synergistically regulate nitrogen N assimilation and remobilization during N deficiency-induced senescence in soybean. Plant Cell Environ. 2020, 43, 1130–1147.
  90. Rais, L.; Masood, A.; Inam, A.; Khan, N; Sulfur and Nitrogen Co-ordinately Improve Photosynthetic Efficiency, Growth and Proline Accumulation in Two Cultivars of Mustard Under Salt Stress. Journal of Plant Biochemistry & Physiology 2013, 1, 1-6, 10.4172/2329-9029.1000101.Lancaster, J.R., Jr. Nitric oxide: A brief overview of chemical and physical properties relevant to therapeutic applications. Future Sci. OA 2015, 1.
  91. Zhang, N.N.; Zou, H.; Lin, X.Y.; Pan, Q.; Zhang, W.Q.; Zhang, J.H.; Chen, J; Hydrogen sulfide and rhizobia synergistically regulate nitrogen (N) assimilation and remobilization during N deficiency‐induced senescence in soybean. Plant, Cell & Environment 2020, 43, 1130-1147, 10.1111/pce.13736.Nabi, R.B.S.; Tayade, R.; Hussain, A.; Kulkarni, K.P.; Imran, Q.M.; Mun, B.G.; Yun, B.W. Nitric oxide regulates plant responses to drought, salinity, and heavy metal stress. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2019, 161, 120–133.
  92. Lancaster, J.R., Jr; Nitric oxide: a brief overview of chemical and physical properties relevant to therapeutic applications. Future Science OA 2015, 1, FSO.15.59, 10.4155/fso.15.59.Fancy, N.N.; Bahlmann, A.K.; Loake, G.J. Nitric oxide functions in plant abiotic stress. Plant Cell Environ. 2017, 40, 462–472.
  93. Nabi, R.B.S.; Tayade, R.; Hussain, A.; Kulkarni, K.P.; Imran, Q.M.; Mun, B.G.; Yun, B.W; Nitric oxide regulates plant responses to drought, salinity, and heavy metal stress. Environmental and Experimental Botany 2019, 161, 120-133, 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2019.02.003.Akram, N.A.; Iqbal, M.; Muhammad, A.; Ashraf, M.; Al-Qurainy, F.; Shafiq, S. Aminolevulinic acid and nitric oxide regulate oxidative defense and secondary metabolisms in canola (Brassica napus L.) under drought stress. Protoplasma 2018, 255, 163–174.
  94. Fancy, N.N.; Bahlmann, A.K.; Loake, G.J; Nitric oxide functions in plant abiotic stress. Plant Cell and Environment 2017, 40, 462-472.Ahmad, P.; Abass, A.M.; Nasser, A.M.; Wijaya, L.; Alam, P.; Ashraf, M. Mitigation of sodium chloride toxicity in Solanum lycopersicum L. by supplementation of jasmonic acid and nitric oxide. J. Plant Interact. 2018, 13, 64–72.
  95. Akram, N.A.; Iqbal, M.; Muhammad, A.; Ashraf, M.; Al‐Qurainy, F.; Shafiq, S; Aminolevulinic acid and nitric oxide regulate oxidative defense and secondary metabolisms in canola (Brassica napus L.) under drought stress. Protoplasma 2017, 255, 163-174, 10.1007/s00709-017-1140-x.Tian, X.; He, M.; Wang, Z.; Zhang, J.; Song, Y.; He, Z.; Dong, Y. Application of nitric oxide and calcium nitrate enhances tolerance of wheat seedlings to salt stress. Plant Growth Regul. 2015, 77, 343–356.
  96. Ahmad, P.; Abass, A.M.; Nasser, A.M.; Wijaya, L.; Alam, P.; Ashraf, M; Mitigation of sodium chloride toxicity in Solanum lycopersicum L. by supplementation of jasmonic acid and nitric oxide. Journal of Plant Interactions 2018, 13, 64-72, 10.1080/17429145.2017.1420830.Gaupels, F.; Kuruthukulangarakoola, G.T.; Durner, J. Upstream and downstream signals of nitric oxide in pathogen defence. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 2011, 14, 707–714.
  97. Tian, X.; He, M.; Wang, Z.; Zhang, J.; Song, Y.; He, Z.; Dong, Y; Application of nitric oxide and calcium nitrate enhances tolerance of wheat seedlings to salt stress. Plant Growth Regulation 2015, 77, 343-356, 10.1007/s10725-015-0069-3.Martínez-Ruiz, A.; Cadenas, S.; Lamas, S. Nitric oxide signaling: Classical, less classical, and nonclassical mechanisms. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2011, 51, 17–29.
  98. Gaupels, F.; Kuruthukulangarakoola, G.T.; Durner, J; Upstream and downstream signals of nitric oxide in pathogen defence. Current Opinion in Plant Biology 2011, 14, 707-714, 10.1016/j.pbi.2011.07.005.Corpas, F.J.; González-Gordo, S.; Cañas, A.; Palma, J.M. Nitric oxide and hydrogen sulfide in plants, which comes first? J. Exp. Bot. 2019, 70, 4391–4404.
  99. Martínez‐Ruiz, A.; Cadenas, S.; Lamas, S; Nitric oxide signaling: Classical, less classical, and nonclassical mechanisms. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 2011, 51, 17-29, 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2011.04.010.Prochazkova, D.; Haisel, D.; Pavlikova, D. Nitric oxide biosynthesis in plants-the short overview. Plant Soil Environ. 2014, 60, 129–134.
  100. Corpas, F.J.; González‐Gordo, S.; Cañas, A.; Palma, J.M; Nitric oxide and hydrogen sulfide in plants: which comes first?. Journal of Experimental Botany 2019, 70, 4391-4404, 10.1093/jxb/erz031.Planchet, E.; Kaiser, W.M. Nitric oxide NO detection by DAF fluorescence and chemiluminescence: A comparison using abiotic and biotic NO sources. J. Exp. Bot. 2006, 57, 3043–3055.
  101. Prochazkova, D.; Haisel, D.; Pavlikova, D; Nitric oxide biosynthesis in plants‐the short overview. Plant Soil and Environment 2014, 60, 129-134.Leterrier, M.; Airaki, M.; Palma, J.M.; Chaki, M.; Barroso, J.B.; Corpas, F.J. Arsenic triggers the nitric oxide (NO) and S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) metabolism in Arabidopsis. Environ. Pollut. 2012, 166, 136–143.
  102. Planchet, E.; Kaiser, W.M; Nitric oxide NO detection by DAF fluorescence and chemiluminescence: A comparison using abiotic and biotic NO sources.. Journal of Experimental Botany 2006, 57, 3043-3055.Sharma, A.; Kapoor, D.; Wang, J.; Landi, M.; Zheng, B.; Yan, D.; Yuan, H. Nitric oxide mediated mechanisms adopted by plants to cope with salinity. Biol. Plant. 2020, 64, 512–518.
  103. Leterrier, M.; Airaki, M.; Palma, J.M.; Chaki, M.; Barroso, J.B.; Corpas, F.J; Arsenic triggers the nitric oxide (NO) and S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) metabolism in Arabidopsis. Environmental Pollution 2012, 166, 136-143, 10.1016/j.envpol.2012.03.012.Astier, J.; Gross, I.; Durner, J. Nitric oxide production in plants, an update. J. Exp. Bot. 2018, 69, 3401–3411.
  104. Sharma, A.; Kapoor, D.; Wang, J.; Landi, M.; Zheng, B.; Yan, D.; Yuan, H; Nitric oxide mediated mechanisms adopted by plants to cope with salinity. Biologia plantarum 2020, 64, 512-518, 10.32615/bp.2020.070.Gupta, K.J.; Fernie, A.R.; Kaiser, W.M.; van Dongen, J.T. On the origins of nitric oxide. Trends Plant Sci. 2011, 16, 160–168.
  105. Astier, J.; Gross, I.; Durner, J; Nitric oxide production in plants: an update. Journal of Experimental Botany 2017, 69, 3401-3411, 10.1093/jxb/erx420.Baudouin, E. The language of nitric oxide signalling. Plant Biol. 2011, 13, 233–242.
  106. Gupta, K.J.; Fernie, A.R.; Kaiser, W.M.; van Dongen, J.T; On the origins of nitric oxide. Trends of Plant Sciences 2011, 13, 233-242.Wang, Y.; Lin, A.; Loake, G.J.; Chu, C. H2O2-induced leaf cell death and the crosstalk of reactive nitric/oxygen species F. J. Integr. Plant Biol. 2013, 55, 202–208.
  107. Baudouin E; The language of nitric oxide signalling. Plant Biology 2011, 13, 233-242, 10.1111/j.1438-8677.2010.00403.x.Yu, S.; Wang, W.; Wang, B. Recent progress of salinity tolerance research in plants. Russ. J. Genet. 2012, 48, 497–505.
  108. Wang, Y.; Lin, A.; Loake, G.J.; Chu, C; H2 O2 -induced Leaf Cell Death and the Crosstalk of Reactive Nitric/Oxygen SpeciesF. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology 2013, 55, 202-208, 10.1111/jipb.12032.Vishwakarma, A.; Wany, A.; Pandey, S.; Bulle, M.; Kumari, A.; Kishorekumar, R.; Gupta, K.J. Current approaches to measure nitric oxide in plants. J. Exp. Bot. 2019, 70, 4333–4343.
  109. Sh Yu; W. Wang; B. Wang; Recent progress of salinity tolerance research in plants.. Russian Journal of Genetics 2012, 48, 497-505, 10.1134/s1022795412050225.Gould, K.S.; Lamotte, O.; Klinguer, A.; Pugin, A.; Wendehenne, D. Nitric oxide production in tobacco leaf cells, a generalized stress response? Plant Cell Environ. 2003, 26, 1851–1862.
  110. Vishwakarma, A.; Wany, A.; Pandey, S.; Bulle, M.; Kumari, A.; Kishorekumar, R.; Gupta, K.J; Current approaches to measure nitric oxide in plants. Journal of Experimental Botany 2019, 70, 4333-4343, 10.1093/jxb/erz242.Mur, L.A.; Prats, E.; Pierre, S.; Hall, M.A.; Hebelstrup, K.H. Integrating nitric oxide into salicylic acid and jasmonic acid/ethylene plant defense pathways. Front. Plant Sci. 2013, 4, 215.
  111. Gould, K.S.; Lamotte, O.; Klinguer, A.; Pugin, A.; Wendehenne, D; Nitric oxide production in tobacco leaf cells: a generalized stress response?. Plant, Cell & Environment 2003, 26, 1851-1862, 10.1046/j.1365-3040.2003.01101.x.Mata-Pérez, C.; Sánchez-Calvo, B.; Padilla, M.N.; Begara-Morales, J.C.; Valderrama, R.; Corpas, F.J.; Barroso, J.B. Nitro-fatty acids in plant signaling: New key mediators of nitric oxide metabolism. Redox Biol. 2017, 11, 554–561.
  112. Mur, L.A.; Prats, E.; Pierre, S.; Hall, M.A.; Hebelstrup, K.H; Integrating nitric oxide into salicylic acid and jasmonic acid/ ethylene plant defense pathways. Frontiers in Plant Science 2013, 4, 215, 10.3389/fpls.2013.00215.Jagodzik, P.; Tajdel-Zielinska, M.; Ciesla, A.; Marczak, M.; Ludwikow, A. Mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades in plant hormone signaling. Front. Plant Sci. 2018, 9, 1387.
  113. Mata‐Pérez, C.; Sánchez‐Calvo, B.; Padilla, M.N.; Begara‐Morales, J.C.; Valderrama, R.; Corpas, F.J.; Barroso, J.B; Nitro-fatty acids in plant signaling: New key mediators of nitric oxide metabolism. Redox Biology 2017, 11, 554-561, 10.1016/j.redox.2017.01.002.Asai, S.; Ohta, K.; Yoshioka, H. MAPK signaling regulates nitric oxide and NADPH oxidase-dependent oxidative bursts in Ncotianabenthamiana. Plant Cell 2008, 20, 1390–11406.
  114. Jagodzik, P.; Tajdel‐Zielinska, M.; Ciesla, A.; Marczak, M.; Ludwikow, A; Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Cascades in Plant Hormone Signaling. Frontiers in Plant Science 2018, 9, 1387, 10.3389/fpls.2018.01387.Gadelha, C.G.; de Souza Miranda, R.; Alencar, N.L.M.; Costa, J.H.; Prisco, J.T.; Gomes-Filho, E. Exogenous nitric oxide improves salt tolerance during establishment of Jatropha curcas seedlings by ameliorating oxidative damage and toxic ion accumulation. J. Plant Physiol. 2017, 212, 69–79.
  115. Asai, S.; Ohta, K.; Yoshioka, H; MAPK Signaling Regulates Nitric Oxide and NADPH Oxidase-Dependent Oxidative Bursts inNicotiana benthamiana. The Plant Cell 2008, 20, 1390-1406, 10.1105/tpc.107.055855.Liu, S.; Yang, R.; Pan, Y.; Ma, M.; Pan, J.; Zhao, Y.; Zhang, L. Nitric oxide contributes to minerals absorption.; proton pumps and hormone equilibrium under cadmium excess in Trifoliumrepens L. plants. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2015, 119, 35–46.
  116. Gadelha, C.G.; de Souza Miranda, R.; Alencar, N.L.M.; Costa, J.H.; Prisco, J.T.; Gomes‐Filho, E; Exogenous nitric oxide improves salt tolerance during establishment of Jatropha curcas seedlings by ameliorating oxidative damage and toxic ion accumulation. Journal of Plant Physiology 2017, 212, 69-79, 10.1016/j.jplph.2017.02.005.Arora, D.; Bhatla, S.C. Melatonin and nitric oxide regulate sunflower seedling growth under salt stress accompanying differential expression of Cu/Zn SOD and Mn SOD. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2017, 106, 315–328.
  117. Liu, S.; Yang, R.; Pan, Y.; Ma, M.; Pan, J.; Zhao, Y.; Zhang, L; Nitric oxide contributes to minerals absorption, proton pumps and hormone equilibrium under cadmium excess in Trifolium repens L. plants. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 2015, 119, 35-46, 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.04.053.Babaei, S.; Niknam, V.; Behmanesh, M. Comparative effects of nitric oxide and salicylic acid on salinity tolerance in saffron Crocus sativus. Plant Biosyst. Int. J. Plant Biol. 2021, 155, 73–82.
  118. Arora, D.; Bhatla, S.C; Melatonin and nitric oxide regulate sunflower seedling growth under salt stress accompanying differential expression of Cu/Zn SOD and Mn SOD. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 2017, 106, 315-328, 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2017.02.042.Huang, J.; Wei, H.; Li, L.; Yu, S. Transcriptome analysis of nitric oxide-responsive genes in upland cotton Gossypiumhirsutum. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0192367.
  119. Babaei, S.; Niknam, V.; Behmanesh, M; Comparative effects of nitric oxide and salicylic acid on salinity tolerance in saffron (Crocus sativus). Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology 2020, 155, 73-82, 10.1080/11263504.2020.1727975.Maslennikova, D.R.; Allagulova, C.R.; Fedorova, K.A.; Plotnikov, A.A.; Avalbaev, A.M.; Shakirova, F.M. Cytokinins contribute to realization of nitric oxide growth-stimulating and protective effects on wheat plants. Russ. J. Plant Physiol. 2017, 64, 665–671.
  120. Huang, J.; Wei, H.; Li, L.; Yu, S; Transcriptome analysis of nitric oxide-responsive genes in upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). PLOS ONE 2018, 13, e0192367, 10.1371/journal.pone.0192367.León, J.; Castillo, M.C.; Coego, A.; Lozano-Juste, J.; Mir, R. Diverse functional interactions between nitric oxide and abscisic acid in plant development and responses to stress. J. Exp. Bot. 2014, 65, 907–921.
  121. Maslennikova, D.R.; Allagulova, C.R.; Fedorova, K.A.; Plotnikov, A.A.; Avalbaev, A.M.; Shakirova, F.M; Cytokinins contribute to realization of nitric oxide growth-stimulating and protective effects on wheat plants. Russian Journal of Plant Physiology 2017, 64, 665-671, 10.1134/s1021443717040094.Neljubov, D.N. Pflanzen. Beih. Bot. Zentralbl. 1901, 10, 128–139.
  122. León, J.; Castillo, M.C.; Coego, A.; Lozano‐Juste, J.; Mir, R; Diverse functional interactions between nitric oxide and abscisic acid in plant development and responses to stress. Journal of Experimental Botany 2014, 65, 907-921, 10.1093/jxb/ert454.Hua, J. Isolation of components involved in ethylene signaling. In Ethylene in Plants, 1st ed.; Wen, C.K., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2015; pp. 27–44.
  123. Neljubov, D.N; Pflanzen. Beih. Bot. Zentralbl 1901, 10, 128-139.Abeles, F.B.; Morgan, P.W.; Saltveit, M.E., Jr. Ethylene in Plant Biology, 2nd ed.; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2012.
  124. Hua, J.; Isolation of Components Involved in Ethylene Signaling. In Ethylene in Plants, 1st ed.; Wen, C.K., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands 2015, ., pp. 27-44, 10.1007/978-94-017-9484-8_2.Abiri, R.; Shaharuddin, N.A.; Maziah, M.; Yusof, Z.N.B.; Atabaki, N.; Sahebi, M.; Hanafi, M.M. Role of ethylene and the APETALA 2/ethylene response factor superfamily in rice under various abiotic and biotic stress conditions. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2017, 134, 33–44.
  125. Abeles, F.B.; Morgan, P.W.; Saltveit, M.E.; Ethylene in Plant Biology. 2nd ed.; Academic Press: San Diego, CA 2012, ., ., 10.1016/C2009-0-03226-7.Iqbal, N.; Nazar, R.; Syeed, S.; Masood, A.; Khan, N.A. Exogenously-sourced ethylene increases stomatal conductance, photosynthesis, and growth under optimal and deficient nitrogen fertilization in mustard. J. Exp. Bot. 2011, 62, 4955–4963.
  126. Abiri, R.; Shaharuddin, N.A.; Maziah, M.; Yusof, Z.N.B.; Atabaki, N.; Sahebi, M.; Hanafi, M.M; Role of ethylene and the APETALA 2/ethylene response factor superfamily in rice under various abiotic and biotic stress conditions. Environmental and Experimental Botany 2017, 134, 33-44, 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2016.10.015.García, M.J.; Romera, F.J.; Lucena, C.; Alcántara, E.; Pérez-Vicente, R. Ethylene and the regulation of physiological and morphological responses to nutrient deficiencies. Plant Physiol. 2015, 169, 51–60.
  127. Iqbal, N.; Nazar, R.; Syeed, S.; Masood, A.; Khan, N.A; Exogenously-sourced ethylene increases stomatal conductance, photosynthesis, and growth under optimal and deficient nitrogen fertilization in mustard. Journal of Experimental Botany 2011, 62, 4955-4963, 10.1093/jxb/err204.Wang, H.; Liang, X.; Wan, Q.; Wang, X.; Bi, Y. Ethylene and nitric oxide are involved in maintaining ion homeostasis in Arabidopsis callus under salt stress. Planta 2009, 230, 293–307.
  128. García, M.J.; Romera, F.J.; Lucena, C.; Alcántara, E.; Pérez‐Vicente, R; Ethylene and the Regulation of Physiological and Morphological Responses to Nutrient Deficiencies. Plant Physiology 2015, 169, 51-60, 10.1104/pp.15.00708.Xu, J.; Zhang, S. Ethylene biosynthesis and regulation in plants. In Ethylene in Plants, 1st ed.; Wen, C.K., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2015; pp. 1–25.
  129. Wang, H.; Liang, X.; Wan, Q.; Wang, X.; Bi, Y; Ethylene and nitric oxide are involved in maintaining ion homeostasis in Arabidopsis callus under salt stress. Planta 2009, 230, 293-307, 10.1007/s00425-009-0946-y.Yang, S.F.; Hoffman, N.E. Ethylene biosynthesis and its regulation in higher plants. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 1984, 35, 155–189.
  130. Xu, J.; Zhang, S.; Ethylene Biosynthesis and Regulation in Plants. In Ethylene in Plants, 1st ed.; Wen, C.K., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands 2015, ., pp. 1-25, 10.1007/978-94-017-9484-8_1.Chang, C. Q&A: How do plants respond to ethylene and what is its importance? BMC Plant Biol. 2016, 14, 1–7.
  131. Yang, S.F.; Hoffman, N.E; Ethylene Biosynthesis and its Regulation in Higher Plants. Annual Review of Plant Biology 1984, 35, 155-189, 10.1146/annurev.arplant.35.1.155.Lin, Z.; Zhong, S.; Grierson, D. Recent advances in ethylene research. J. Exp. Bot. 2009, 60, 3311–3336.
  132. Chang C; Q&A: How do plants respond to ethylene and what is its importance?. BMC Biology 2016, 14, 1-7, 10.1186/s12915-016-0230-0.Tsuchisaka, A.; Theologis, A. Unique and overlapping expression patterns among the Arabidopsis 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase gene family members. Plant Physiol. 2004, 136, 2982–3000.
  133. Lin, Z.; Zhong, S.; Grierson, D; Recent advances in ethylene research. Journal of Experimental Botany 2009, 60, 3311-3336, 10.1093/jxb/erp204.Lyzenga, W.J.; Booth, J.K.; Stone, S.L. The Arabidopsis RING-type E3 ligase XBAT32 mediates the proteasomal degradation of the ethylene biosynthetic enzyme.; 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase 7. Plant J. 2012, 71, 23–34.
  134. Tsuchisaka, A.; Theologis, A; Unique and Overlapping Expression Patterns among the Arabidopsis 1-Amino-Cyclopropane-1-Carboxylate Synthase Gene Family Members. Plant Physiology 2004, 136, 2982-3000, 10.1104/pp.104.049999.Ji, Y.; Guo, H. From endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to nucleus: EIN2 bridges the gap in ethylene signaling. Mol. Plant 2013, 6, 11–14.
  135. Lyzenga, W.J.; Booth, J.K.; Stone, S.L; The Arabidopsis RING-type E3 ligase XBAT32 mediates the proteasomal degradation of the ethylene biosynthetic enzyme, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase 7. The Plant Journal 2012, 71, 23-34, 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2012.04965.x.Dolgikh, V.A.; Pukhovaya, E.M.; Zemlyanskaya, E.V. Shaping ethylene response: The role of EIN3/EIL1 transcription factors. Front. Plant Sci. 2019, 10, 1030.
  136. Ji, Y.; Guo, H; From Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) to Nucleus: EIN2 Bridges the Gap in Ethylene Signaling. Molecular Plant 2013, 6, 11-14, 10.1093/mp/sss150.Riyazuddin, R.; Verma, R.; Singh, K.; Nisha, N.; Keisham, M.; Bhati, K.K.; Gupta, R. Ethylene: A master regulator of salinity stress tolerance in plants. Biomolecules 2020, 10, 959.
  137. Dolgikh, V.A.; Pukhovaya, E.M.; Zemlyanskaya, E.V; Shaping Ethylene Response: The Role of EIN3/EIL1 Transcription Factors. Frontiers in Plant Science 2019, 10, 1030, 10.3389/fpls.2019.01030.Khan, M.I.R.; Jahan, B.; AlAjmi, M.F.; Rehman, M.T.; Khan, N.A. Ethephon mitigates nickel stress by modulating antioxidant system.; glyoxalase system and proline metabolism in Indian mustard. Physiol. Mol. Biol. Plants 2020, 26, 1201–1213.
  138. Riyazuddin, R.; Verma, R.; Singh, K.; Nisha, N.; Keisham, M.; Bhati, K.K.; Gupta, R; Ethylene: A Master Regulator of Salinity Stress Tolerance in Plants. Biomolecules 2020, 10, 959, 10.3390/biom10060959.Cui, M.; Lin, Y.; Zu, Y.; Efferth, T.; Li, D.; Tang, Z. Ethylene increases accumulation of compatible solutes and decreases oxidative stress to improve plant tolerance to water stress in Arabidopsis. J. Plant Biol. 2015, 58, 193–201.
  139. Khan, M.I.R.; Jahan, B.; AlAjmi, M.F.; Rehman, M.T.; Khan, N.A; Ethephon mitigates nickel stress by modulating antioxidant system, glyoxalase system and proline metabolism in Indian mustard. Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants 2020, 26, 1201-1213, 10.1007/s12298-020-00806-1.Iqbal, N.; Khan, N.A.; Ferrante, A.; Trivellini, A.; Francini, A.; Khan, M.I.R. Ethylene role in plant growth, development and senescence, interaction with other phytohormones. Front. Plant Sci. 2017, 8, 475.
  140. Cui, M.; Lin, Y.; Zu, Y.; Efferth, T.; Li, D.; Tang, Z; Ethylene increases accumulation of compatible solutes and decreases oxidative stress to improve plant tolerance to water stress in Arabidopsis. Journal of Plant Biology 2015, 58, 193-201, 10.1007/s12374-014-0302-z.Al Murad, M.; Razi, K.; Benjamin, L.K.; Lee, J.H.; Kim, T.H.; Muneer, S. Ethylene regulates sulfur acquisition by regulating the expression of sulfate transporter genes in oilseed rape. Physiol. Plant. 2020, 171, 533–545.
  141. Iqbal, N.; Khan, N.A.; Ferrante, A.; Trivellini, A.; Francini, A.; Khan, M.I.R; Ethylene Role in Plant Growth, Development and Senescence: Interaction with Other Phytohormones. Frontiers in Plant Science 2017, 8, 475, 10.3389/fpls.2017.00475.Shakar, M.; Yaseen, M.; Mahmood, R.; Ahmad, I. Calcium carbide induced ethylene modulate biochemical profile of Cucumis sativus at seed germination stage to alleviate salt stress. Sci. Hortic. 2016, 213, 179–185.
  142. Al Murad, M.; Razi, K.; Benjamin, L.K.; Lee, J.H.; Kim, T.H.; Muneer, S; Ethylene regulates sulfur acquisition by regulating the expression of sulfate transporter genes in oilseed rape. Physiologia Plantarum 2020, 171, 533-545, 10.1111/ppl.13157.Zhang, X.; Shi, Z.; Tian, Y.; Zhou, Q.; Cai, J.; Dai, T.; Jiang, D. Salt stress increases content and size of glutenin macropolymers in wheat grain. Food Chem. 2016, 197, 516–521.
  143. Shakar, M.; Yaseen, M.; Mahmood, R.; Ahmad, I; Calcium carbide induced ethylene modulate biochemical profile of Cucumis sativus at seed germination stage to alleviate salt stress. Scientia Horticulturae 2016, 213, 179-185, 10.1016/j.scienta.2016.10.037.Liu, C.; Li, J.; Zhu, P.; Yu, J.; Hou, J.; Wang, C.; Zhao, A. Mulberry EIL3 confers salt and drought tolerances and modulates ethylene biosynthetic gene expression. Peer J. 2019, 7, e6391.
  144. Zhang, X.; Shi, Z.; Tian, Y.; Zhou, Q.; Cai, J.; Dai, T.; Jiang, D; Salt stress increases content and size of glutenin macropolymers in wheat grain. Food Chemistry 2016, 197, 516-521, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.11.008.Shi, S.; Li, S.; Asim, M.; Mao, J.; Xu, D.; Ullah, Z.; Liu, G.; Wang, Q.; Liu, H. The Arabidopsis calcium-dependent protein kinases CDPKs and their roles in Plant growth regulation and abiotic stress responses. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19, 1900.
  145. Liu, C.; Li, J.; Zhu, P.; Yu, J.; Hou, J.; Wang, C.; Zhao, A; Mulberry EIL3 confers salt and drought tolerances and modulates ethylene biosynthetic gene expression. Peer J 2019, 7, e6391, 10.7717/peerj.6391.Peng, J.; Li, Z.; Wen, X.; Li, W.; Shi, H.; Yang, L.; Zhu, H.; Guo, H. Salt-induced stabilization of EIN3/EIL1 confers salinity tolerance by deterring ROS accumulation in Arabidopsis. PLoS Gen. 2014, 10, e1004664.
  146. Shi, S.; Li, S.; Asim, M.; Mao, J.; Xu, D.; Ullah, Z.; Liu, G.; Wang, Q.; Liu, H; The Arabidopsis Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinases (CDPKs) and Their Roles in Plant Growth Regulation and Abiotic Stress Responses. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2018, 19, 1900, 10.3390/ijms19071900.Xu, L.; Xiang, G.; Sun, Q.; Ni, Y.; Jin, Z.; Gao, S.; Yao, Y. Melatonin enhances salt tolerance by promoting MYB108A-mediated ethylene biosynthesis in grapevines. Hortic. Res. 2019, 6, 1–14.
  147. Peng, J.; Li, Z.; Wen, X.; Li, W.; Shi, H.; Yang, L.; Zhu, H.; Guo, H; Salt-Induced Stabilization of EIN3/EIL1 Confers Salinity Tolerance by Deterring ROS Accumulation in Arabidopsis. PLoS Genetics 2014, 10, e1004664, 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004664.Husain, T.; Fatima, A.; Suhel, M.; Singh, S.; Sharma, A.; Prasad, S.M.; Singh, V.P. A brief appraisal of ethylene signaling under abiotic stress in plants. Plant Signal. Behav. 2020, 15, 1782051.
  148. Xu, L.; Xiang, G.; Sun, Q.; Ni, Y.; Jin, Z.; Gao, S.; Yao, Y; Melatonin enhances salt tolerance by promoting MYB108A-mediated ethylene biosynthesis in grapevines. Horticulture Research 2019, 6, 1-14, 10.1038/s41438-019-0197-4.Fahad, S.; Hussain, S.; Matloob, A.; Khan, F.A.; Khaliq, A.; Saud, S.; Hassan, S.; Shan, D.; Khan, F.; Ullah, N.; et al. Phytohormones and plant responses to salinity stress: A review. Plant Growth Regul. 2015, 75, 391–404.
  149. Husain, T.; Fatima, A.; Suhel, M.; Singh, S.; Sharma, A.; Prasad, S.M.; Singh, V.P; A brief appraisal of ethylene signaling under abiotic stress in plants. Plant Signaling & Behavior 2020, 15, 1782051, 10.1080/15592324.2020.1782051.Xu, H.; Liu, Q.; Yao, T.; Fu, X. Shedding light on integrative GA signaling. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 2014, 21, 89–95.
  150. Fahad, S.; Hussain, S.; Matloob, A.; Khan, F.A.; Khaliq, A.; Saud, S.; Hassan, S.; Shan, D.; Khan, F.; Ullah, N.; et al.et al Phytohormones and plant responses to salinity stress: a review. Plant Growth Regulation 2015, 75, 391-404, 10.1007/s10725-014-0013-y.Yang, R.; Hong, Y.; Ren, Z.; Tang, K.; Zhang, H.; Zhu, J.K.; Zhao, C. A role for PICKLE in the regulation of cold and salt stress tolerance in Arabidopsis. Front. Plant Sci. 2019, 10, 900.
  151. Xu, H.; Liu, Q.; Yao, T.; Fu, X; Shedding light on integrative GA signaling. Current Opinion in Plant Biology 2014, 21, 89-95, 10.1016/j.pbi.2014.06.010.Li, N.; Han, X.; Feng, D.; Yuan, D.; Huang, L.J. Signaling crosstalk between salicylic acid and ethylene/jasmonate in plant defense: Do we understand what they are whispering? Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 671.
  152. Yang, R.; Hong, Y.; Ren, Z.; Tang, K.; Zhang, H.; Zhu, J.K.; Zhao, C; A Role for PICKLE in the Regulation of Cold and Salt Stress Tolerance in Arabidopsis. Frontiers in Plant Science 2019, 10, 900, 10.3389/fpls.2019.00900.Khan, M.I.R.; Asgher, M.; Khan, N.A. Alleviation of salt-induced photosynthesis and growth inhibition by salicylic acid involves glycinebetaine and ethylene in mungbean (Vigna radiata L.). Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2014, 80, 67–74.
  153. Li, N.; Han, X.; Feng, D.; Yuan, D.; Huang, L.J; Signaling Crosstalk between Salicylic Acid and Ethylene/Jasmonate in Plant Defense: Do We Understand What They Are Whispering?. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2019, 20, 671, 10.3390/ijms20030671.Nazar, R.; Umar, S.; Khan, N.A.; Sareer, O. Salicylic acid supplementation improves photosynthesis and growth in mustard through changes in proline accumulation and ethylene formation under drought stress. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2015, 98, 84–94.
  154. Khan, M.I.R.; Asgher, M.; Khan, N.A; Alleviation of salt-induced photosynthesis and growth inhibition by salicylic acid involves glycinebetaine and ethylene in mungbean (Vigna radiata L.). Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 2014, 80, 67-74, 10.1016/j.plaphy.2014.03.026.Zhu, T.; Deng, X.; Zhou, X.; Zhu, L.; Zou, L.; Li, P.; Zhang, D.; Lin, H. Ethylene and hydrogen peroxide are involved in brassinosteroid-induced salt tolerance in tomato. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 35392.
  155. Nazar, R.; Umar, S.; Khan, N.A.; Sareer, O; Salicylic acid supplementation improves photosynthesis and growth in mustard through changes in proline accumulation and ethylene formation under drought stress. South African Journal of Botany 2015, 98, 84-94, 10.1016/j.sajb.2015.02.005.Buet, A.; Galatro, A.; Ramos-Artuso, F.; Simontacchi, M. Nitric oxide and plant mineral nutrition, current knowledge. J. Exp. Bot. 2019, 70, 4461–4476.
  156. Zhu, T.; Deng, X.; Zhou, X.; Zhu, L.; Zou, L.; Li, P.; Zhang, D.; Lin, H; Ethylene and hydrogen peroxide are involved in brassinosteroid-induced salt tolerance in tomato. Scientific Reports 2016, 6, 35392, 10.1038/srep35392.Santolini, J.; André, F.; Jeandroz, S.; Wendehenne, D. Nitric oxide synthase in plants: Where do we stand? Nitric Oxide 2017, 63, 30–38.
  157. Buet, A.; Galatro, A.; Ramos‐Artuso, F.; Simontacchi, M; Nitric oxide and plant mineral nutrition: current knowledge. Journal of Experimental Botany 2019, 70, 4461-4476, 10.1093/jxb/erz129.Chamizo-Ampudia, A.; Sanz-Luque, E.; Llamas, A.; Galvan, A.; Fernandez, E. Nitrate reductase regulates plant nitricoxide homeostasis. Trends Plant Sci. 2017, 22, 163–174.
  158. Santolini, J.; André, F.; Jeandroz, S.; Wendehenne, D; Nitric oxide synthase in plants: Where do we stand?. Nitric Oxide 2017, 63, 30-38, 10.1016/j.niox.2016.09.005.Dong, F.; Simon, J.; Rienks, M.; Lindermayr, C.; Rennenberg, H. Effects of rhizopheric nitric oxide NO on N uptake in Fagus sylvatica seedlings depend on soil CO2 concentration.; soil N availability and N source. Tree Physiol. 2015, 35, 910–920.
  159. Chamizo‐Ampudia, A.; Sanz‐Luque, E.; Llamas, A.; Galvan, A.; Fernandez, E; Nitrate Reductase Regulates Plant Nitric Oxide Homeostasis. Trends in Plant Science 2017, 22, 163-174, 10.1016/j.tplants.2016.12.001.Sun, J.; Zheng, N. Molecular mechanism underlying the plant NRT1. 1 dual-affinity nitrate transporter. Front. Physiol. 2015, 18, 6–386.
  160. Dong, F.; Simon, J.; Rienks, M.; Lindermayr, C.; Rennenberg, H; Effects of rhizopheric nitric oxide (NO) on N uptake in Fagus sylvatica seedlings depend on soil CO 2 concentration, soil N availability and N source. Tree Physiology 2015, 35, 910-920, 10.1093/treephys/tpv051.Wang, J.; Yu, S.X.; Zhang, M.; Cui, X.M. Exogenous nitric oxide-mediated GSH-PC synthesis pathway in tomato under copper stress. Russ. J. Plant Physiol. 2015, 62, 349–359.
  161. Sun, J.; Zheng, N; Molecular Mechanism Underlying the Plant NRT1.1 Dual-Affinity Nitrate Transporter. Frontiers in Physiology 2015, 6, 386, 10.3389/fphys.2015.00386.Masood, A.; Iqbal, N.; Khan, M.I.R.; Khan, N.A. The coordinated role of ethylene and glucose in sulfur-mediated protection of photosynthetic inhibition by cadmium. Plant Signal Behav. 2012, 7, 1420–1422.
  162. Wang, J.; Yu, S.X.; Zhang, M.; Cui, X.M; Exogenous Nitric Oxide-Mediated GSH–PC Synthesis Pathway in Tomato under Copper Stress. Russian Journal of Plant Physiology 2015, 62, 378-388, 10.7868/s0015330315030185.Saithong, T.; Saerue, S.; Kalapanulak, S.; Sojikul, P.; Narangajavana, J.; Bhumiratana, S. Gene co-expression analysis inferring the crosstalk of ethylene and gibberellin in modulating the transcriptional acclimation of cassava root growth in different seasons. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0137602.
  163. Masood, A.; Iqbal, N.; Khan, M.I.R.; Khan, N.A; The coordinated role of ethylene and glucose in sulfur-mediated protection of photosynthetic inhibition by cadmium. Plant Signaling & Behavior 2012, 7, 1420-1422, 10.4161/psb.22079.Wawrzyńska, A.; Sirko, A. To control and to be controlled: Understanding the Arabidopsis SLIM1 function in sulfur deficiency through comprehensive investigation of the EIL protein family. Front. Plant Sci. 2014, 5, 575.
  164. Saithong, T.; Saerue, S.; Kalapanulak, S.; Sojikul, P.; Narangajavana, J.; Bhumiratana, S; Gene Co-Expression Analysis Inferring the Crosstalk of Ethylene and Gibberellin in Modulating the Transcriptional Acclimation of Cassava Root Growth in Different Seasons. PLOS ONE 2015, 10, e0137602, 10.1371/journal.pone.0137602.
  165. Wawrzyńska, A.; Sirko, A; To control and to be controlled: understanding the Arabidopsis SLIM1 function in sulfur deficiency through comprehensive investigation of the EIL protein family. Frontiers in Plant Science 2014, 5, 575, 10.3389/fpls.2014.00575.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
Video Production Service
Feedback