Battery Safety: Comparison
View Latest Version
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Vicky Zhou and Version 1 by Bhavya Kotak.

Battery safety is a prominent concern for the deployment of electric vehicles (EVs). The battery powering an EV contains highly energetic active materials and flammable organic electrolytes. Usually, an EV battery catches fire due to its thermal runaway, either immediately at the time of the accident or can take a while to gain enough heat to ignite the battery chemicals. There are numerous battery abuse testing standards and regulations available globally. Therefore, battery manufacturers are always in dilemma to choose the safest one. Henceforth, to find the optimal outcome of these two major issues, six standards (SAE J2464:2009, GB/T 31485-2015:2015, FreedomCAR:2006, ISO 12405-3:2014, IEC 62660-2:2010, and SAND2017-6295:2017) and two regulations (UN/ECE-R100.02:2013 and GTR 20:2018), that are followed by more than fifty countries in the world, are investigated in terms of their abuse battery testing conditions (crush test).

  • lithium-ion battery
  • electric vehicle battery
  • battery standard
  • battery regulation
  • battery testing standard
  • battery testing regulation
  • abuse testing
  • harmonising battery standard
  • crush test procedure
  • battery incidents
  • battery standard and regulation augmenta

1. Introduction

To realize a sustainable energy supply, researchers seek to substitute the use of traditional fossil fuels with clean and renewable energy resources. One of the potential solutions is to move from internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, i.e., gasoline vehicles, to vehicles that are powered by electricity, or alternative fuels like biofuels, hydrogen, liquefied natural gas (LNG), compressed natural gas (CNG), or hybrid vehicles (a combination of the aforementioned fuels) [1][2][3]. However, research has demonstrated that vehicles powered by electricity, i.e., electric vehicles (EVs) are the most effective solution [4][5][6][7][8][9]. These can reduce environmental pollution and will subsequently help to avoid global warming and climate change [10][11][12][13].

In recent years, globally the automotive industry has noticed a significant deployment of EVs in the market [3][14][15]. For example, in the year 2018, Europe (EU) attained more than one million EVs in the market [16]. Numerous researchers from a companies such as Shell Deutschland and Prognos AG including academicians such as Kugler et al. predicted the increment in the future sales of EVs [17][18]. This increment is not only due to technological advancement but is also policy-driven, as mentioned in the report of “Global EV Outlook 2020” [19]. As per the International Energy Agency (IEA), there will be 125 million EVs around the world by the year 2030 [20], and similar further information regarding the prediction and the future stock of EVs in Germany was researched by Machuca et al. and Kahn [14][21].

According to Spielbauer et. al., it is anticipated that the battery fire incidents and the severity of such incidents will increase in the future due to, (a) the rise in energy density of the new cells that are being developed, and (b) an increasing demand of EVs and the batteries that are used within EVs [22]. According to Wang et al., Kubjatko, Goodman et al. and Pan et al. EVs facing an accident can mechanically deform, malfunction, or can completely fail [23][24][25] the battery. Some of the primary reasons that can cause battery failure are [26]:
1. Internal cell short circuit: This kind of severe event can happen abruptly and without any pre-warning. Zhao et. al. and Larsson found that this event can occur because of multiple reasons such as mechanical deformation or manufacturing faults. They also noticed that another reason for an internal short circuit can be the dendrite formation within the cells [27][28]. According to Ahlberg Tidblad [29], this is a particularly disturbing cause because this type of failure occurs in batteries that are complied with industry standards;
2. Mechanical deformation and impact: This cause can easily initiate an internal short circuit which consequently leads to a fire. Acute deformation can be due to certain types of crashes or ground surface conditions. Zhu et al. noted that battery packs are susceptible to penetration due to side collisions and road debris impacts [30]. The research conducted by Trattnig and Leitgeb [31] showed that the absolute scenario in a car crash can be the amalgamation of leaking fluid or gases near ignition sources like electrical arcs and/or hot surfaces;
3. Charge: The purpose for which the batteries are tailored is to collect a specific amount of energy over a definite period of time. In the instances where limits are surpassed, due to rapid charging or overcharging, the battery performance can degrade, or it can even fail completely [26];
4. Discharge: Over discharge occurs when the battery cells are discharged below their manufacturer recommended minimum voltage. During this process, the conductive copper particles are released in the electrolyte, which consequently leads to an internal short circuit of the battery. Usually, battery safety systems are there to stop such situations. However, if such a safety system fails or the battery is abused, there is a possibility of battery failure [32];
5. External short circuit: This type of the short circuit also falls under the category of an electric abuse, which can easily destabilise the battery. An external short circuit happens when the battery faces an impact and/or deformation [26];
6. High-temperature exposure: In real-time applications, the battery needs to be cooled during its operation: however, if the ambient temperature is higher than the internal temperature, battery decomposition mechanisms are triggered causing the battery to produce extreme levels of heat. This high level of heat can result in an internal short circuit or thermal runaway, which consequently reduces the safety margin [26];
7. Thermal runaway: In a battery, when exothermic chemical reactions are producing more heat than is being dissipated, it enters the thermal runaway condition. In case of severe accidents, because of thermal runaway, the battery can emit heat/fumes, catch fire, or in a worst-case scenario explode [6][24][33][34][35][36].
There are negligible data available in relation to the incidences of EV fires; however, according to Norwegian insurance companies, a study conducted by [26] the percentage of EV fire accidents is approximate 4.8%, out of the total number of vehicle fire accidents. Moreover, Gehandler et al. [37] found that on an average one vehicle fire that occurs every year during battery charging in multistorey car parking or big garages. Some of such catastrophic battery incidents around the world are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. List of battery incidents [38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68].
Year Region/Country Vehicle Incident and Cause
2010 Scandinavia Nissan Qashqai Vehicle caught fire while charging
2011 China Zotye M300 EV Vehicle caught fire while driving and hence all-electric taxis were temporary pulled off the streets
2011 USA Chevrolet Volt Fire emerged due to leaking coolant three weeks after crash test
2012 USA General Motor vehicles Battery exploded due to incompatible operating cycle and battery prototype during tests
2012 USA Fisker Karma Rate of fire: Two per thousand. Usually, a vehicle catches fires while it is parked
2012 USA Three Toyota Prius and Sixteen Fisker Karma During a hurricane, vehicles caught fire when immersed in seawater as it worked as the conductor between both +ve and −ve battery poles
2012 Sweden Fiat 500 Fire ignited in the engine compartment while charging
2013 France Two Bolloré Bluecar First vehicle caught fire while parked and the fire spread to the second one as well
2013 Mexico Three Tesla Model S Vehicle caught fire by hitting road debris, tree and the concrete wall in less than two months. Consequently, Tesla was pushed to reinforce the vehicle construction
2013 Japan Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Battery overheating issue identified so production was stopped for five months
2014 Canada Tesla Model S Vehicle caught fire while parked in the garage and was bought only 4 months prior to the incident
2015 Norway EV Vehicle faced accident with a train and caught fire after two hours, which took a long time to extinguish
2016 Norway Tesla Model S Caught fire due to short circuit while charging at supercharger station
2016 France Tesla Model S Faulty electric connection caused a fire during the test drive
2017 UK Smart Fortwo electric drive Faulty electricals caused a fire while charging
2017 China Tesla Model X Vehicle was at high speed and caught fire after the crash. Backseat passengers evacuated via front doors
2017 USA Tesla Model X Vehicle caught fire after the crash and was re-ignited on the tow truck and third time at the tow yard
2018 Thailand Porsche Panamera Vehicle was plugged in and was being charged from the house socket when it caught fire
2018 The Netherlands Jaguar I-Pace Newly delivered vehicle caught fire while parked
2018 USA Tesla Model X Vehicle caught fire after the crash and was re-ignited within a few days two times, while parked in the tow yard
2018 USA Tesla Model X Vehicle caught fire after the crash and was extinguished on-site with the help of an extinguisher but was re-ignited two times within a week at the tow yard
2018 USA Tesla Model S Battery casing was ruptured and the vehicle caught fire immediately after hitting the pole and nearby wall. Fire re-ignited two times, (a) while loading on the tow truck, and (b) at the tow yard
2018 USA Tesla Model S Battery venting caused a fire while driving
2018 USA Tesla Model S Fire started in the parking area and was re-ignited in the tow yard
2018 USA Tesla Model S Vehicle caught fire after the crash which was extinguished swiftly but was reignited at the time of loading on the truck and thereafter at the tow yard
2018 USA Tesla Model S Parked vehicle caught fire two times in the workshop parking area
2018 USA Tesla Model S Caught fire during driving and was extinguished swiftly
2018 Thailand Porsche Panamera, PHEV Caught fire while charging from the home socket. Consequently, the fire was spread throughout the home
2018 Switzerland Tesla, BEV Vehicle was turned over after crashing with a barrier and immediately caught fire
2018 China & Spain Tesla, BEV and BMW i3 REx, PHEV Unknown spontaneous ignition caused the fire in the parked vehicle
2018 China Zhong Tai, BEV and 3 other BEVs Fire was ignited without any accident. Two vehicles caught fire during charging and rest while driving
2019 The Netherlands BMW I8 Caught fire in the showroom and was quenched with water
2019 China 3 BJEV minivans Companies do not prefer this model anymore as it catches fire while charging
2019 China Tesla Model S Rapid development of fire was noticed due to battery venting within 30 min of the arrival of a vehicle while it was parked in the garage
Based on the analysis (causes and comments) of Table 1 and by [27][69][70][71], it can be said that EV batteries are prone to failure in the case of accidents, i.e., there is a risk of the battery catching fire immediately after the accident, or it can have a delayed event. Thus, it is important to develop a safer and reliable battery, i.e., correlated risks can be managed to achieve a suitable level of safety on which the consumer can rely [72][73][74][75]. To develop such a battery, several regulatory bodies around the world have developed various battery standards and regulations. These standards and regulations have a variety of testing procedures known as abuse tests. These abuse testing procedures have various testing conditions and parameters within them to test the batteries.

2. Abuse Testing: Crush Test

While introducing EVs in the market, the manufacturers must show that the vehicle and its components match the safety limits assigned by the regulatory bodies. The battery is one of such components that is considered as a primary source of hazard for EV consumers [76] and hence, it needs to undergo rigorous safety tests before introducing EVs into the market [77]. Standards are usually considered as good practice documents. If the standard is not followed then the product manufacturer should justify the different route chosen [78].
It is important to note that standards encompass a variety of aims and objectives. A specific standard can have the combination of many objectives such as design, performance test, safety design, safety test, environmental protection, classification, and recommendation [78]. For example, FreedomCAR:2006 [79] and SAE J2464:2009 [80] help to investigate and gather the battery response under severe conditions, i.e., outside the normal operating range, for manufacturers to examine the battery system design failure. On the other hand, standards such as ISO 12405-3:2014 [81] and IEC 62660-2:2010 [82] provide the detailed test procedure to observe the reliability of the battery and also specifies the acceptable safety requirements.
Figure 1 provides an overview of the standard abuse tests, categorised as per the nature of the test conducted and misuse (electrical, chemical, thermal and mechanical). The tests are conducted either on the cell, module, or pack level depending on the respective standard or regulation. Underwriter laboratories have detailed information on each of these abuse tests [83]. The crash/crush test was marked green as this article focuses on this test.
Batteries 07 00063 g001
Figure 1. Abuse tests for the battery as per different standards and regulations [73].
Despite having such a wide variety of abuse tests, EV batteries might catch fire after an accident, i.e., either immediately or erstwhile [22][84]. It was forecasted by Machuca et al. that such incidents can go up to 135,000 vehicles/year by the year 2030 [14]. The detailed information on battery incidents and handling such incidents are elaborated by [85]. Considering this forecast and the number/examples of accidents that have happened so far, it can be said that the crush test should be paid more attention and should be investigated in depth [22].

3. Conclusions

Overall, after analysing multifarious standards and regulations, it can be concluded that energy storage in vehicles has always been associated with several risks. The combustion engine vehicles that are used in today’s world took several decades to reach current safety standards and a similar challenge of time consumption and technological advancement is currently faced by EVs. However, the development time can be significantly shortened by modern technologies, as well as experience from previous and ongoing research. After analysing the selected standards and regulations, it was identified that the ambiguities need to be removed and clarity can be provided in terms of testing procedures that are dedicated for cell, module, and pack level testing. For example, Table 92 shows such ambiguity for the selected standards and regulations against the crush parameters such as procedure, crushing speed, SoC, press position, crusher shape and dimensions, and the number of testing samples at the cell, module and pack level. Moreover, further ambiguity needs to be resolved, such as the acceptance criteria mentioned in UN/ECE-R100.02:2013, which should also be mentioned by other standards and regulations.
Table 92. Ambiguity in standards and regulations for crush parameters different levels.
Standards and Regulations Crush Parameters 1 Levels
Cell Module Pack
SAE J2464:2009 ✓ ✓ ✓
ISO 12405-3:2014 × × ✓
IEC 62660-2:2010 ✓ × ×
FreedomCAR:2006 ✓ ✓ ✓
SAND2017-6925:2017 ✓ ✓ ✓
GB/T 31485-2015:2015 ✓ ✓ ✓
UN/ECE-R100.02:2013 × ✓ ✓
GTR 20:2018 × ✓ ✓
1 Procedure, crushing speed, SoC, press position, crusher shape and dimensions, and number of testing samples.
 
Moreover, it is also concluded that (a) there is a scope of harmonisation of standards and regulations, and the current proposals should be investigated with priority and should be implemented in the market, and (b) augmentation can be performed by considering real-life vehicle crash scenarios, i.e., dynamic behaviour of the vehicle. Future works that can be performed are (a) the study of the impactor material, i.e., cell failure behaviour based on different impactor materials, and (b) comparison between the test outcomes, i.e., the impact of SoC on cell failure behaviour, carried out according to different standards and regulations. Altogether, it can be said if these steps are adopted then certainly battery and EV manufacturers will have significant ease during the manufacturing and approval processes and will also enhance the safety of EV consumers.  

References

  1. Wu, S.; Xiong, R.; Li, H.; Nian, V.; Ma, S. The state of the art on preheating lithium-ion batteries in cold weather. J. Energy Storage 2020, 27, 101059.
  2. Zhang, Q.; Dong, Q.-F.; Zheng, M.-S.; Tian, Z.-W. Electrochemical Energy Storage Device for Electric Vehicles. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2011, 158, A443.
  3. Kotak, B.; Kotak, Y. Review of E European Regu ulations and Germany’s Action to Reduce Automotive Sector Emissions. Trasp. Eur. 2016, 7, 1–19.
  4. Wegmann, R.; Döge, V.; Becker, J.; Sauer, D.U. Optimized operation of hybrid battery systems for electric vehicles using deterministic and stochastic dynamic programming. J. Energy Storage 2017, 14, 22–38.
  5. Bandhauer, T.M.; Garimella, S.; Fuller, T.F. A Critical Review of Thermal Issues in Lithium-Ion Batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2011, 158, R1.
  6. Spray, R.; Barry, M.; Vickery, J. Understanding Downstream Risk from Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Runaway & Designing for Safety. ECS Trans. 2019, 89, 65–71.
  7. Visintin, A.; Thomas, J.E.; Becker, M.D.; Castro, B.; Milocco, R.; Real, S.; Sacco, J.; Garaventta, G.N.; Triaca, W.E. (Keynote Lecture) The Research on Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric Cars in the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. ECS Trans. 2019, 40, 67–73.
  8. Messier, P.; Nguyễn, B.-H.; LeBel, F.-A.; Trovão, J.P.F. Disturbance observer-based state-of-charge estimation for Li-ion battery used in light electric vehicles. J. Energy Storage 2020, 27, 101144.
  9. Alessandrini, S.; Rizzuto, E.; Del Prete, Z. Characterizing different types of lithium ion cells with an automated measurement system. J. Energy Storage 2016, 7, 244–251.
  10. Wang, W.; Yang, S.; Lin, C. Clay-like mechanical properties for the jellyroll of cylindrical Lithium-ion cells. Appl. Energy 2017, 196, 249–258.
  11. Hawkins, T.R.; Singh, B.; Majeau-Bettez, G.; Strømman, A.H. Comparative Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Conventional and Electric Vehicles. J. Ind. Ecol. 2013, 17, 53–64.
  12. Malifarge, S.; Delobel, B.; Delacourt, C. Experimental and Modeling Analysis of Graphite Electrodes with Various Thicknesses and Porosities for High-Energy-Density Li-Ion Batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2018, 165, A1275–A1287.
  13. Mohanty, P.; Kotak, Y. Electric vehicles: Status and roadmap for India. In Electric Vehicles: Prospects and Challenges; Muneer, T., Kolhe, M.L., Doyle, A., Eds.; Elsevier Inc.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017; pp. 387–414.
  14. Machuca, E.; Steger, F.; Vogt, J.; Brade, K.; Schweiger, H.G. Availability of Lithium Ion Batteries from Hybrid and Electric Cars for Second Use: How to Forecast for Germany until 2030. J. Electr. Eng. 2018, 6, 129–143.
  15. Schweiger, H.-G. Zukunft in Bewegung—Automobile Antriebskonzepte in der Diskussion 2019. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333868327_Elektromobilitat_Aktueller_Stand_und_Ausblick (accessed on 10 June 2021).
  16. Vaughan, A.; Electric Cars Exceed 1 m in Europe as Sales Soar by More Than 40%. The Guard. Available online: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/aug/26/electric-cars-exceed-1m-in-europe-as-sales-soar-by-more-than-40-per-cent#top (accessed on 10 April 2021).
  17. Shell Deutschland Oil GmbH. Shell Passenger Car SCenarios for Germany to 2040; Shell Deutschland Oil GmbH: Hamburg, Germany, 2014.
  18. Kugler, U.; Schimeczek, C.; Klötzke, M.; Schmid, S.; Gis, W.; Järvi, T.; Auvinen, H. Scenario Report, with an in-Depth Description of the Scenarios’ Background (D 6.2); eMap—German Aerospace Center (DLR), Motor Transport Institute (ITS) & Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd. (VTT): Stuttgart, Germany, 2015.
  19. IEA. Global EV Outlook 2020; IEA: Paris, Frence, 2020.
  20. Power Technology. The Most Promising Renewable Trends for Electric Vehicles. Available online: https://www.power-technology.com/comment/promising-renewable-trends-electric-vehicles/ (accessed on 2 April 2021).
  21. Khan, B. The World Is on the Brink of an Electric Car Revolution. Available online: https://www.climatecentral.org/news/world-electric-car-revolution-21597 (accessed on 5 April 2021).
  22. Spielbauer, M.; Berg, P.; Ringat, M.; Bohlen, O.; Jossen, A. Experimental study of the impedance behavior of 18650 lithium-ion battery cells under deforming mechanical abuse. J. Energy Storage 2019, 26, 101039.
  23. Wang, W.; Yang, S.; Lin, C.; Li, Y. Mechanical and electrical response of cylindrical Lithium-ion cells at various State of Charge. Energy Procedia 2018, 145, 128–132.
  24. Goodman, J.K.S.; Miller, J.T.; Kreuzer, S.; Forman, J.; Wi, S.; Choi, J.; Oh, B.; White, K. Lithium-ion cell response to mechanical abuse: Three-point bend. J. Energy Storage 2020, 28, 101244.
  25. Pan, Z.; Li, W.; Xia, Y. Experiments and 3D detailed modeling for a pouch battery cell under impact loading. J. Energy Storage 2020, 27, 101016.
  26. Bisschop, R.; Willstrand, O.; Amon, F.; Rosengren, M. Fire Safety of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Road Vehicles; RISE Research Institutes of Sweden: Gothenburg, Sweden, 2019.
  27. Zhao, W.; Luo, G.; Wang, C.-Y. Modeling Internal Shorting Process in Large-Format Li-Ion Cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2015, 162, A1352–A1364.
  28. Larsson, F. Lithium-ion Battery Safety-Assessment by Abuse Testing, Fluoride Gas Emissions and Fire Propagation. Ph.D. Thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, 2017.
  29. Santhanagopalan, S.; Ramadass, P.; Zhang, J. Analysis of internal short-circuit in a lithium ion cell. J. Power Sources 2009, 194, 550–557.
  30. Zhu, J.; Wierzbicki, T.; Li, W. A review of safety-focused mechanical modeling of commercial lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 2018, 378, 153–168.
  31. Trattnig, G.; Leitgeb, W. Battery Modelling for Crash Safety Simulation. In Automotive Battery Technology; Springer International Publishing: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2014; pp. 19–35.
  32. Hendricks, C.; Williard, N.; Mathew, S.; Pecht, M. A failure modes, mechanisms, and effects analysis (FMMEA) of lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources 2015, 297, 113–120.
  33. Li, W.; Xia, Y.; Chen, G.; Sahraei, E. Comparative study of mechanical-electrical-thermal responses of pouch, cylindrical, and prismatic lithium-ion cells under mechanical abuse. Sci. China Technol. Sci. 2018, 61, 1472–1482.
  34. Jeevarajan, J.A.; Hall, A. Study of the Intrinsic Safety Features in a Cylindrical Li-Ion Cell. ECS Trans. 2019, 1, 1–5.
  35. Liao, Z.; Zhang, S.; Li, K.; Zhao, M.; Qiu, Z.; Han, D.; Zhang, G.; Habetler, T.G. Hazard analysis of thermally abused lithium-ion batteries at different state of charges. J. Energy Storage 2020, 27, 101065.
  36. Mier, F.A.; Morales, R.; Coultas-McKenney, C.A.; Hargather, M.J.; Ostanek, J. Overcharge and thermal destructive testing of lithium metal oxide and lithium metal phosphate batteries incorporating optical diagnostics. J. Energy Storage 2017, 13, 378–386.
  37. Gehandler, J.; Karlsson, P.; Vylund, L. Risks Associated with Alternative Fuels in Road Tunnels and Underground Garages; SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden: Borås, Sweden, 2017.
  38. Danish Maritime Accident Investigation Board. Pearl of Scandinavia Fire-Marine Accident Report; Danish Maritime Accident Investigation Board: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2010.
  39. Auto Web Hangzhou Halts All Electric Taxis as a Zotye Langyue (Multipla) EV Catches Fire. Available online: http://chinaautoweb.com/2011/04/hangzhouhalts-all-electric-taxis-as-a-zotye-langyue-multipla-ev-catches-fire/ (accessed on 15 December 2020).
  40. Smith, B. Chevrolet Volt Battery Incident Summary Report; US Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration: Washington, DC, USA, 2012.
  41. Sturk, D.; Hoffmann, L. E-Fordons Potentiella Riskfaktorer vid Trafikskadehändelse; SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden: Borås, Sweden, 2013.
  42. Voelcker, J. Second Fisker Karma Fire Casts Fresh Doubt on Plug-In Hybrid. Available online: https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1078412_second-fisker-karma-fire-casts-fresh-doubt-on-plug-in-hybrid (accessed on 13 January 2021).
  43. Garthwaite, J. Mystery at Port Newark: Why Did 17 Plug-In Cars Burn? Available online: https://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/02/mystery-at-port-newark-why-did-17-plug-in-cars-burn/ (accessed on 12 February 2021).
  44. McPartland, B. Paris Autolib’ Electric Cars Go up in Smoke. Available online: https://www.thelocal.fr/20131014/in-images-two-autolib-cars-go-up-in-smoke-in-paris/ (accessed on 10 April 2021).
  45. Godfrey, W. Investigation: PE 13-037-Fire-Propulsion Battery-Road Debris. 2014. Available online: https://www.autosafety.org/wp-content/uploads/import/Tesla Battery Closing Memo.pdf (accessed on 13 March 2021).
  46. Loveday, E. Mitsubishi Extends Production Halt on Outlander PHEV as Perplexing Battery Investigation Continues. Available online: https://insideevs.com/news/317625/mitsubishi-extends-production-halt-on-outlander-phev-as-perplexing-battery-investigation-continues/ (accessed on 15 March 2021).
  47. Lopez, L. Another Tesla Caught On Fire While Sitting in a Toronto Garage This Month. Available online: https://www.businessinsider.in/another-tesla-caught-on-fire-while-sitting-in-a-toronto-garage-this-month/articleshow/30366384.cms (accessed on 20 March 2021).
  48. Bolstad, K.; Urstad, T. Personbil Påkjørt Av Toget i Råde. Available online: https://www.moss-avis.no/nyheter/rade/togulykker/personbil-pakjort-av-toget-i-rade/s/5-67-193113 (accessed on 29 March 2021).
  49. Brandt, P. Brandorsaken Hos Tesla Model S i Norge Klarlagd—Kortslutning. Available online: https://www.mestmotor.se/automotorsport/artiklar/nyheter/20160319/brandorsaken-hos-tesla-model-s-i-norge-klarlagd-kortslutning/ (accessed on 10 March 2021).
  50. Lambert, F. Tesla Says Model S Fire in France Was Due to ‘Electrical Connection Improperly Tightened’ by a Human Instead of Robots. Available online: https://electrek.co/2016/09/09/tesla-fire-france-electrical-connection-improperly-tightened-human-robot/ (accessed on 3 April 2021).
  51. Evans, A. Electric Car Bursts into Flames and Burns to the Ground after it was Left Charging Overnight ’at a Faulty Power Point. Available online: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4679416/Electric-car-left-chargingovernight-destroyed-fire.html (accessed on 1 March 2021).
  52. Lambert, F. (a) Tesla Owner Asks for $1 Million after Model X Caught on Fire in Crash and Falcon Wing Doors Wouldn’t Open. Available online: https://electrek.co/2017/04/23/tesla-model-x-fire-crash-falcon-wing-doors-stuck/ (accessed on 17 June 2021).
  53. Barth, T.; Robert, S. NTSB Investigations of EV Fires Electric Vehicle Safety IWG Global Technical Regulation Session 16. Available online: https://wiki.unece.org/download/attachments/60358932/EVS16-E7OI-0600 %5BUS%5DNTSB electric vehicle fire investigations.pdf?api=v2 (accessed on 25 June 2021).
  54. Online Reporters Porsche Catches Fire while Charging. Available online: https://www.bangkokpost.com/news/general/1429518/porsche-catches-firewhile-charging (accessed on 2 April 2021).
  55. Brandt, P. Jaguar I-Pace Fattade Eld i Nederländerna—Beskrivs Som “Termisk Incident”. Available online: https://www.mestmotor.se/recharge/artiklar/nyheter/20181211/jaguar-i-pace-fattade-eld-i-nederlanderna-beskrivs-som-ermisk-incidentav-jaguar/ (accessed on 12 March 2021).
  56. Pearson-JonesBridie New Tesla Car Bursts into Flames TWICE in a Day with Firefighters Using 2000 Gallons of Water to Battle Blaze. Available online: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-6519645/Tesla-car-catches-fire-3times-one-day-firefighters-battle-blaze-2000-gallons-water.html (accessed on 26 April 2021).
  57. Technology Tesla Car Catches Fire in China, Investigation Underway. Available online: https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d514d7a416a4d34457a6333566d54/index.html (accessed on 17 March 2021).
  58. Loveday, S. BMW i3 REx Burns after Catching Fire while Parked in Spain. Available online: https://insideevs.com/news/337258/bmw-i3-rex-burns-after-catching-fire-while-parked-in-spain/ (accessed on 9 May 2021).
  59. NTSB. Preliminary Report: Crash and Post-Crash Fire of Electric-Powered Passenger Vehicle; NTSB: Washington, DC, USA, 2018.
  60. Zhou, X. Frequent Fire Accidents on Electric Vehicle. Operators 2018, 10, 65–66.
  61. NTSB. (a) Preliminary Report: Highway HWY18FH013; National Transportation Safety Board: Washington, DC, USA, 2018.
  62. Revill, J. Tesla Crash may have Triggered Battery Fire: Swiss Firefighters. Available online: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-swiss-tesla-crash-idUSKCN1IF2WN (accessed on 7 March 2021).
  63. NTSB. (b) Preliminary Report—Battery Fire in Electric-Powered Passenger Car; National Transportation Safety Board: Washington, DC, USA, 2018.
  64. Deick, M. Van Gloednieuwe Auto Verwoest Door Brand in Rumpt. Available online: https://www.zakengidstiel.nl/nieuws/algemeen/587262/gloednieuwe-auto-verwoest-door-brand-in-rumpt (accessed on 4 April 2021).
  65. Gutman, M.; Youn, S. Firefighters Work 16 Hours to Put Out Fires in Tesla Model S. Available online: https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/tesla-opens-investigation-car-burst-flames-times/story?id=59930420 (accessed on 17 March 2021).
  66. Jolicoeur, C. BMW i8 Catches Fire in Europe Dealership, Gets Dropped in Huge Bath. Available online: https://motorillustrated.com/bmw-i8-catches-fire-in-europe-dealership-gets-dropped-in-huge-bath/23440/ (accessed on 10 April 2021).
  67. Huang, E. Electric Vans from One of China’s Biggest EV Makers Are Catching Fire. Available online: https://qz.com/1575817/electric-vehicles-from-chinese-car-maker-bjev-are-catching-fire/ (accessed on 3 April 2021).
  68. Ke, S. Tesla Investigating Explosion of Car in Shanghai. Available online: https://www.shine.cn/news/metro/1904223436/ (accessed on 22 March 2021).
  69. Kermani, G.; Sahraei, E. Review: Characterization and Modeling of the Mechanical Properties of Lithium-Ion Batteries. Energies 2017, 10, 1730.
  70. Zhang, M.; Liu, L.; Stefanopoulou, A.; Siegel, J.; Lu, L.; He, X.; Ouyang, M. Fusing Phenomenon of Lithium-Ion Battery Internal Short Circuit. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2017, 164, A2738–A2745.
  71. Hunt, I.A.; Patel, Y.; Szczygielski, M.; Kabacik, L.; Offer, G.J. Lithium sulfur battery nail penetration test under load. J. Energy Storage 2015, 2, 25–29.
  72. Kim, W.-K.; Steger, F.; Kotak, B.; Knudsen, P.; Girgsdies, U.; Schweiger, H.-G. Water Condensation in Traction Battery Systems. Energies 2019, 12, 1171.
  73. Kotak, B. (a) Need for Safer Standards and Regulation of Lithium-Ion Battery. In Proceedings of the 10th Annual Battery Saftey Summit, Alexandria, VA, USA, 22–25 October 2019; Cambridge EnerTech: Needham, MA, USA, 2019.
  74. Union of Concerned Scientist Electric Vehicle Batteries: Materials, Cost, Lifespan. Available online: https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/ev-batteries#toc-materials (accessed on 19 March 2021).
  75. Zhao, W.; Luo, G.; Wang, C.-Y. Modeling Nail Penetration Process in Large-Format Li-Ion Cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2015, 162, A207–A217.
  76. Green, J.; Hartman, B.; Glowacki, P. A System-based View of the Standards and Certification Landscape for Electric Vehicles. World Electr. Veh. J. 2016, 8, 564–575.
  77. Gao, S.; Feng, X.; Lu, L.; Ouyang, M.; Ren, D. A Test Approach for Evaluating the Safety Considering Thermal Runaway Propagation within the Battery Pack. ECS Trans. 2017, 77, 225–236.
  78. Mulder, G.; Trad, K.; Ried, S.; Sotta, D. Advanced Materials for Batteries; MAT4BAT. Available online: https://www.batterystandards.info/sites/batterystandards.info/files/mat4bat_d5.6_m42_recommendations_further_development_regulations_and_standards.pdf (accessed on 20 June 2021).
  79. Doughty, D.H.; Crafts, C.C. FreedomCAR: Elaectrical Energy Storage System Abuse Test Manual for Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Applications—FreedomCAR:2006; Sandia National Laboratories; SNL: Albuquerque, NM, USA; Livermore, CA, USA, 2006.
  80. SAE. Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Rechargeable Energy Storage System (RESS) Safety and Abuse Testing—SAE J2464:2009; SAE International: Washington, DC, USA, 2009.
  81. ISO Electrically Propelled Road Vehicles—Test Specification for Lithium-Ion Traction Battery Packs and Systems—Part 3: Safety Performance Requirements—ISO 12405-3:2014. Available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/59224.html (accessed on 13 April 2021).
  82. IEC. Secondary Lithium-Ion Cells for the Propulsion of Electric Road Vehicles—Part 2: Reliability and Abuse Testing; International Electrotechnical Commision: Geneva, Switzerland, 2018.
  83. Underwriters Laboratories. Safety Issues for Lithium-Ion Batteries; Northbrook: Chicago, IL, USA, 2011.
  84. Leuthner, S. Lithium-Ion Batteries: Basics and Applications; Korthauer, R., Ed.; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2018.
  85. Garche, J.; Brandt, K. (Eds.) Electrochemical Power Sources: Fundamentals, Systems, and Applications; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2019.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
ScholarVision Creations
Feedback