The use of natural products to promote health is as old as human civilization. In recent years, the perception of natural products derived from plants as abundant sources of biologically active compounds has driven their exploitation towards the search for new chemical products that can lead to further pharmaceutical formulations. Candida fungi, being opportunistic pathogens, increase their virulence by acquiring resistance to conventional antimicrobials, triggering diseases, especially in immunosuppressed hosts. They are also pointed to as the main pathogens responsible for most fungal infections of the oral cavity. This increased resistance to conventional synthetic antimicrobials has driven the search for new molecules present in plant extracts, which have been widely explored as alternative agents in the prevention and treatment of infections.
Plant Name | Plant Extract | Compound | Microorganism | Results | References | ||||||||||||||||||
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Antimicrobial Activity | Antibiofilm Activity | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Allium sativum | L. | Essential oil (bulbs) | Allicin, alliin, ajoene [60] | Allicin, alliin, ajoene [75] | C. albicans | ATCC 14053 | MIC | 8.0 μg∙mL | −1 | >99.9% reduction | 8.00 μg∙mL | −1 | [59] | [74] | |||||||||
IZD | 19.0 mm (50.0 μg∙mL | −1 | ) | ||||||||||||||||||||
Aloysia gratissima | (Aff & Hook) Tronc. | Essential oil (leaves) | (E) | -pinocamphone, β-pinene, guaiol |
C. albicans | CBS 562 | MIC | 0.015 mg∙mL | −1 | 12.3% inhibition | 1.00 mg∙mL | −1 | [86] | [64] | |||||||||
MFC | 0.062 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
Artemisia judaica | L. | Essential oil (aerial plant parts) | Piperitone, camphor, ethyl cinnamate, chrysanthenone | C. albicans | ATCC 10231 | MIC | 1.25 μg∙mL | −1 | 50.0% reduction | 2.5 μg∙mL | −1 | [87] | [100] | ||||||||||
Brucea javanica | (L.) Merr. | Aqeuous extract (seeds) | Quassinoids, alkaloids, |
C. albicans | ATCC 14053 | - | 94.5% CSH reduction 79.7% adherence reduction |
6.00 mg∙mL | −1 | [88] | [101] | ||||||||||||
C. dubliniensis | ATCC MYA-2975 | 90.4% CSH reduction 27.9% adherence reduction |
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C. glabrata | ATCC 90030 | 84.8% CSH reduction 76.8% adherence reduction |
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C. krusei | ATCC 14243 | 97.0% CSH reduction 67.6% adherence reduction |
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C. lusitaniae | ATCC 64125 | 91.1% CSH reduction 89.0% adherence reduction |
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C. parapsilosis | ATCC 22019 | 98.8% CSH reduction 49.0% adherence reduction |
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C. tropicalis | ATCC 13803 | 88.4% CSH reduction 89.9% adherence reduction |
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Cassia spectabilis | DC. | Methanol extract (leaves) | (+)-spectaline; (−)-iso-6-cassine [89] | (+)-spectaline; (−)-iso-6-cassine [102] | C. albicans | 1 (CI) | MIC IZD |
6.25 mg∙mL | −1 | 20 mm (100 mg∙mL | −1 | ) | 97% inhibition | 6.25 mg∙mL | −1 | [90] | [103] | ||||||
C. albicans | 2 (CI) | MIC IZD |
6.25 mg∙mL | −1 | 21 mm (100 mg∙mL | −1 | ) | ||||||||||||||||
C. albicans | 3 (CI) | MIC IZD |
6.25 mg∙mL | −1 | 23 mm (100 mg∙mL | −1 | ) | ||||||||||||||||
Chenopodium ambrosioides | L. | Aqueous extract (leaves) | Kaempferol, quercetin | C. albicans | ATCC 90028 | MIC | 0.250 mg∙mL | −1 | >99.0% reduction | 1.25 mg∙mL | −1 | [91] | [104] | ||||||||||
MFC | 0.250 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
Cinnamomum cassia | L. J.Presl | Essential oil (leaves, bark, stalk) | Cinnamaldehyde, benzyl benzoate, α-pinene | C. albicans | ATCC 90028 | MIC | 65.5 µg∙mL | −1 | >99.9% reduction | 1.00 mg∙mL | −1 | [65] | [80] | ||||||||||
MFC | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Cinnamomum verum | J.Presl | Essential oil (leaves) | Eugenol, benzyl benzoate, | trans | -caryophyllene, acetyle eugenol, linalool | C. albicans | ATCC MYA-2876 | MIC | 1.0 mg∙mL | −1 | 50% reduction | 0.15 mg∙mL | −1 | [92] | [105] | ||||||||
50% inhibition | 1.0 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
C. tropicalis | ATCC 750 | 50% reduction | 0.35 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||
50% inhibition | >2.0 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
C. dubliniensis | ATCC MYA-646 | 50% reduction | 0.2 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||
50% inhibition | 0.2 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
Cinnamomum zeylanicum | Blume | Essential oil (leaves) | Cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate, cinnamyl benzoate [64] | Cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate, cinnamyl benzoate [79] | C. albicans | ATCC 10231 | MIC | 0.1 µg∙mL | −1 | 99.75% reduction | 1.6 µg∙mL | −1 | [93] | [106] | |||||||||
MFC | 0.4 µg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
IZD | 42.5 mm (50 µg∙mL | −1 | ) | ||||||||||||||||||||
Coriandrum sativum | L. | Essential oil (leaves) | Decanal, | trans | -2-decenal, 2-decen-1-ol, cyclodecane, cis-2-dodecenal | C. albicans | CBS 562 | MIC | 15.6 µg∙mL | −1 | 53.43% inhibition | 62.50 µg∙mL | −1 | [94] | [107] | ||||||||
MFC | 31.2 µg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
C. tropicalis | CBS 94 | MIC | 31.2 µg∙mL | −1 | 89.76% inhibition | 125 µg∙mL | −1 | ||||||||||||||||
MFC | 62.5 µg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
C. krusei | CBS 573 | MIC | 15.6 µg∙mL | −1 | 42.13% inhibition | 15.62 µg∙mL | −1 | ||||||||||||||||
MFC | 31.2 µg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
C. dubliniensis | CBS 7987 | MIC | 31.2 µg∙mL | −1 | 61.51% inhibition | 62.50 µg∙mL | −1 | ||||||||||||||||
MFC | 62.5 µg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
C. rugosa | CBS 12 | MIC | 15.6 µg∙mL | −1 | 68.03% inhibition | 62.50 µg∙mL | −1 | ||||||||||||||||
MFC | 31.2 µg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
Croton urucurana | Baill. | Methanol extract (stems) | (epi)-catechin dimer I [95] | (epi)-catechin dimer I [108] | C. albicans | ATCC 10231 | - | 46.0% inhibition | 0.500 mg∙mL | −1 | [96] | [109] | |||||||||||
Cymbopogon citratus | (DC.) Stapf |
Essential oil (leaves) | Citral, neral, β-myrcene, geraniol [97] | Citral, neral, β-myrcene, geraniol [110] | C. albicans | ATCC 10231 | MIC | 0.1 µL∙mL | −1 | 99.79% reduction | 6.4 µL∙mL | −1 | [93] | [106] | |||||||||
MFC | 0.4 µL∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
IZD | 18.2 mm (5% v.v | −1 | ) | ||||||||||||||||||||
Ethanol extract (leaves) | Citral, geraniol, neral, camphene, limonene [98] | Citral, geraniol, neral, camphene, limonene [111] | C. albicans | ATCC 18804 | MIC | 0.625 mg∙mL | −1 | >99.9% inhibition | 3.13 mg∙mL | −1 | [99] | [112] | |||||||||||
MFC | 2.50 mg∙mL | −1 | 94.0% reduction | 6.25 mg∙mL | −1 | ||||||||||||||||||
Cymbopogon nardus | L. Rendle | Essential oil (leaves) | Citronellal, citronellol, geraniol | C. albicans | ATCC 76645 | MIC | 32.0 µg∙mL | −1 | >99.0% inhibition | 32.0 µg∙mL | −1 | [100] | [113] | ||||||||||
MFC | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Cymbopogon winterianus | Jowitt | Essential oil (leaves) | Citronellal, citronellol, geraniol | C. albicans | ATCC 90028 | MIC | 250 µg∙mL | −1 | >99.0% reduction | 1.00 mg∙mL | −1 | [65] | [80] | ||||||||||
MFC | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Cyperus articulatus | L. | Essential oil (bulbs) | α-pinene, mustakone, α-bulnesene | C. albicans | CBS 562 | MIC | 0.125 mg∙mL | −1 | 28.1% inhibition | 1.00 mg∙mL | −1 | [99] | [112] | ||||||||||
MFC | 0.500 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
Eucalyptus globulus | Labill. | Essential oil (leaves) | Hyperoside, quercitrin, myricetin [101] | Hyperoside, quercitrin, myricetin [114] | C. albicans | ATCC 14053 | MFC | 0.219 mg∙mL | −1 | 86% reduction | 22.5 mg∙mL | −1 | [102] | [115] | |||||||||
C. tropicalis | ATCC 66029 | 0.885 mg∙mL | −1 | 85% reduction | |||||||||||||||||||
C. glabrata | ATCC 66032 | 0.219 mg∙mL | −1 | 85.2% reduction | |||||||||||||||||||
Houttuynia cordata | Thunb | Ethanol extract (leaves) | Aldehydes | C. albicans | CAD1 | MFC | >2.17 mg∙mL | −1 | 70.0% reduction | 1.00% ( | v/v | ) | [103] | [116] | |||||||||
Lippia sidoides | Cham. | Essential oil (leaves) | Thymol, | p | -cymene, α-caryophyllene | C. albicans | CBS 562 | MIC | 0.250 mg∙mL | −1 | 16.5% inhibition | 1.00 mg∙mL | −1 | [104] | [117] | ||||||||
MFC | 0.500 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
Melaleuca alternifolia | (Maiden & Betche) Cheel | Essential oil (leaves) | Terpinen-4-ol, | γ | -terpinene, | p | -cymene, | α | -terpinene,1,8-cineole, | α | -terpineol, | α | -pinene | C. albicans | ATCC 18804 | MIC | 1.95 mg∙mL | −1 | MBEC | 125 mg∙mL | −1 | [105] | [118] |
Essential oil (leaves) | Terpinen-4-ol, | γ | -terpinene, | α | -terpinene, terpinolene, 1,8-cineole | C. albicans | ATCC 10231 | MIC | 3.40 mg∙mL | −1 | 131% adherence reduction | 0.75% ( | v/v | ) | [106] | [119] | |||||||
C. albicans | SC5314 | MIC | 0.84 mg∙mL | −1 | 76.0% adherence reduction | ||||||||||||||||||
Mikania glomerata | Spreng | Essential oil (leaves) | Germacrene D, α-caryophyllene, bicyclogermacrene | C. albicans | CBS 562 | MIC | 0.250 mg∙mL | −1 | 22.7% inhibition | 1.00 mg∙mL | −1 | [104] | [117] | ||||||||||
MFC | 0.250 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
Piper betle | L. | Aqueous extract (leaves) | Hydroxychavicol, cinnamoyl derivatives, luteolin, apigenin [107] | Hydroxychavicol, cinnamoyl derivatives, luteolin, apigenin [120] | C. albicans | ATCC 14053 | - | 38.6% CSH reduction 61.4% adherence reduction |
6.00 mg∙mL | −1 | [88] | [101] | |||||||||||
C. dubliniensis | ATCC MYA-2975 | 78.3% CSH reduction 21.4% adherence reduction |
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C. glabrata | ATCC 90030 | 71.4% CSH reduction 12.4% adherence reduction |
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C. krusei | ATCC 14243 | 31.6% CSH reduction 56.4% adherence reduction |
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C. lusitaniae | ATCC 64125 | 67.5% CSH reduction 47.6% adherence reduction |
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C. parapsilosis | ATCC 22019 | 48.1% CSH reduction 46.5% adherence reduction |
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C. tropicalis | ATCC 13803 | 29.7% CSH reduction 86.9% adherence reduction |
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Rosmarinus officinalis | L. | Liposoluble extract (leaves) | Carnosic acid, carnosol [108] | Carnosic acid, carnosol [121] | C. albicans | ATCC 18804 | MIC | 0.78 mg∙mL | −1 | 99.9% reduction | 200 mg∙mL | −1 | [109] | [122] | |||||||||
MMC | 3.13 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||||||
Satureja hortensis | L. | Essential oil (leaves and flowers) | Thymol, λ-terpinene, carvacrol, | p | -cymene | C. albicans | F81 (CI) | MIC MFC |
300 µg∙mL | −1 | 400 µg∙mL | −1 | 91.0% inhibition 91.0% reduction |
4.80 mg∙mL | −1 | [110] | [123] | ||||||
C. albicans | F94 (CI) | 200 µg∙mL | −1 | 300 µg∙mL | −1 | 90.0% inhibition 80.0% reduction |
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C. albicans | F87 (CI) | 300 µg∙mL | −1 | 400 µg∙mL | −1 | 86.0% inhibition 76.0% reduction |
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C. albicans | F49 (CI) | 400 µg∙mL | −1 | 600 µg∙mL | −1 | 92.0% inhibition 92.0% reduction |
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C. albicans | F82 (CI) | 400 µg∙mL | −1 | 600 µg∙mL | −1 | 89.0% inhibition 89.0% reduction |
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C. albicans | F95 (CI) | 400 µg∙mL | −1 | 81.0% inhibition 81.0% reduction |
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C. albicans | F92 (CI) | 300 µg∙mL | −1 | 600 µg∙mL | −1 | 90.0% inhibition 90.0% reduction |
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C. albicans | F60 (CI) | 400 µg∙mL | −1 | 600 µg∙mL | −1 | 80.0% inhibition 80.0% reduction |
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C. albicans | F86 (CI) | 200 µg∙mL | −1 | 300 µg∙mL | −1 | 87.0% inhibition 87.0% reduction |
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C. albicans | F91 (CI) | 300 µg∙mL | −1 | 400 µg∙mL | −1 | 83.0% inhibition 83.0% reduction |
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C. albicans | F69 (CI) | 200 µg∙mL | −1 | 300 µg∙mL | −1 | 91.0% inhibition 80.0% reduction |
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C. albicans | F1 (CI) | 87.0% inhibition 79.0% reduction |
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C. albicans | F34 (CI) | 86.0% inhibition 91.0% reduction |
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C. albicans | F19 (CI) | 90.0% inhibition 85.0% reduction |
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C. albicans | F78 (CI) | 400 µg∙mL | −1 | 600 µg∙mL | −1 | 84.0% inhibition 84.0% reduction |
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Schinus terebinthifolia | Raddi. |
Methanol extract (leaves) | Phenolic compounds, anthraquinones, terpenoids, alkaloids | C. albicans | ATCC 10231 | - | 47.0% inhibition | 0.007 mg∙mL | −1 | [96] | [109] | ||||||||||||
Solidago virgaurea | subsp. | alpestris | Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd. | Aqueous extract (aerial plant parts) | Saponins | C. albicans | ATCC 10231 | NA (IZD) | 95.9% inhibition 92.4% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL | −1 | 0.750 mg∙mL | −1 | [84] | [98] | ||||||||
C. albicans | IM001 (CI) | 96.0% inhibition 82.2% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL | −1 | 0.750 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||
C. albicans | IM003 (CI) | 99.5% inhibition 76.3% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL | −1 | 0.750 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||
C. albicans | IM007 (CI) | 95.1% inhibition 91.9% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL | −1 | 0.750 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||
Solidago virgaurea | L. subsp. | virgaurea | . | Aqueous extract (aerial plant parts) | Saponins | C. albicans | ATCC 10231 | NA (IZD) | 98.4% inhibition 77.9% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL | −1 | 0.750 mg∙mL | −1 | ||||||||||
C. albicans | IM001 (CI) | 99.2% inhibition 91.1% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL | −1 | 0.750 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||
C. albicans | IM003 (CI) | 97.3% inhibition 79.2% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL | −1 | 0.750 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||
C. albicans | IM007 (CI) | 96.5% inhibition 90.9% reduction |
0.250 mg∙mL | −1 | 0.750 mg∙mL | −1 | |||||||||||||||||
Terminalia catappa | L. |
Ethanol extract (leaves) | Caffeic acid, quercitrin, kaempferol, gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, isoquercitrin [111] | Caffeic acid, quercitrin, kaempferol, gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, isoquercitrin [124] | C. albicans | ATCC 90028 | MIC MFC |
6.25 mg∙mL | −1 | 12.5 mg∙mL | −1 | >98.0% reduction | 62.5 mg∙mL | −1 | [112] | [125] | |||||||
n | -butanol fraction from ethanol extract (leaves) | C. albicans | ATCC 90028 | MIC MFC |
250 μg∙mL | −1 | >99.5% reduction | 2.50 mg∙mL | −1 | [113] | [126] | ||||||||||||
C. glabrata | ATCC 2001 | MIC MFC |
250 μg∙mL | −1 | >99.0% reduction | 2.50 mg∙mL | −1 | ||||||||||||||||
Trachyspermum ammi | (L.) Sprague | Aromatic water (aerial plant parts) | Thymol, carvacrol, carvotanacetone | C. albicans | CBS1905 | - | - | 95.2% inhibition | 0.5% ( | v | / | v | ) | [114] | [127] | ||||||||
Zataria multiflora | Boiss. | Aqueous extract (whole plant) | Thymol, hydroxyl benzoic acid, and cymene [115] | Thymol, hydroxyl benzoic acid, and cymene [128] | C. albicans | PTCC-5027 | MIC | 1.50 mg∙mL | −1 | 87% reduction | 25 mg∙mL | −1 | [116] | [129] | |||||||||
Ethanolic extract (whole plant) | MIC | 0.84 mg∙mL | −1 | 97% reduction |