Different parts of a plant (seeds, fruits, flower, leaves, stem, and roots) contain numerous biologically active compounds called “phytoconstituents” that consist of phenolics, minerals, amino acids, and vitamins. The conventional techniques applied to extract these phytoconstituents have several drawbacks including poor performance, low yields, more solvent use, long processing time, and thermally degrading by-products. In contrast, modern and advanced extraction nonthermal technologies such as pulsed electric field (PEF) assist in easier and efficient identification, characterization, and analysis of bioactive ingredients. Other advantages of PEF include cost-efficacy, less time, and solvent consumption with improved yields.
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Ref. | Raw Material | Extraction Technique | Pretreatment Condition | Extraction Condition | Solid-Solvent Ratio | Solvent | Yield | TPC | DPPH | FRAP | IC50 | TFC | TAC | TCC | |||
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[65] | Cinnamon ( | Cinnamomum verum | ) powder | PEF-assisted extraction | Frequency: 1 Hz Voltage: 2–6 5.12 kV/cm No. of pulses: 40–60 NR |
Temperature: ambient Time: 48 h | 1:10 | w/v | Ethanol 100 mL |
5.06 % | 505.9 mg GA/kg | 91.7% | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR |
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Ref. | Raw Material | PEF-Pretreatment | Extraction Method | Extraction Conditions | Solid-Solvent Ratio | Solvent | Yield | TPC | AA | TAC | DPPH | FRAP | TFC |
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Ref. | Raw Material | PEF Pretreatment Conditions | Extraction Method | Extraction Equipment | Extraction Conditions | Solvent | Oil Yield | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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[89] | Thawed blackcurrant ( | Ribes nigrum | ) | EFS: 1318 kV/cm Pulses: 315 |
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[99 | Cold pressing | ] | Sunflower seeds | EFS: 7.0 kV/cm Frequency: 0.5 Hz Solvent content: 50 wt.% Time: 90 s Pulse width: 30 µsPower: 150 W |
Solvent extractionVelocity: 70 rpm Pressing time: 1.5 min |
NR | NR | NR | 3.8 ± 0.2 mg GA/g | 1.88 ± 0.06 mg GA/g | NR | NR | NR | NR | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Shaker | Frequency: 400/min | Time: 3 h Temperature: room | Bioethanol | 55.9% | 66] | Nepeta binaludensis | [PEF-assisted extraction | 72]No. of pulses:60 | Blueberry ( | Vaccinium myrtillus | ) press cake Frequency: 1 Hz |
EFS: 5 kV/cm Voltage: 6 kV No. of pulses: 60 |
Temperature: ambient Time: 48 h |
1:10 | w/v | Solid–liquid extraction | Temperature: ambient Time: 24 h Ethanol 100 mL |
11.36% | Shaking speed: 150 rpm | 6:1 mL/g Solvent to press cake ratio |
50% Ethanol; 0.5% HCl, | v | / | v | NR417.85 mg GA/g | 74.8% | 1688.53 µmol Fe | 2+ | /g | 0.32 mg/mL | NR | NR | NR | |||
89.3% | NR | 111% | NR | 80% | NR | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[100] | Damask rose flowers | EFS: 20 kV/cm Pulse number: 8 |
PEF-assisted Hydro distillation | Clevenger-type micro-apparatus | Distillation temperature: 100 °C Distillation time: 2 h |
10% sodium chloride | yield of 0.105% with a 50% increase in essential oil | [24] | Thinned peach ( | Prunus persica | ) | [PEF-assisted extraction | 90]EFS: 0 kV/cm Specific energy: 0.61–9.98 kJ/kg Pulse frequency: 1 Hz No. of pulses per time: 30–150 µs |
Temperature: 35 °C Time: 10 h |
NR | |||||||||||||||||||||
[101] | Methanol | 80% | 200 mL water–methanol solvent | NR | 83.3 mg GAE/100 g | Fresh tea leaves | 57.8 % | NR | NR | ( | Camellia sinensis | ) | EFS: 1.00 kV/cm | Sunflower seeds Pulses: 100 Energy: 22 kJ/kg Temperature: 1.5 °C54.3 |
Organic solvent extraction CE/100 g |
EFS: 7 kV/cm Time: 2 h Temperature: room Stirring speed: 250 rpm |
1:1000 Biomass to solvent ratio | 50% acetone/water ( | w/w | ) solution | NR | 398 mg/L | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | |||||||||
Frequency: 1.5 Hz | Treatment time: 30 s Pulse width: 30 µs |
Solvent extraction | Shaker | Frequency: 400/min Time: 3 h Temperature: room |
Hexane 40 mL (50 wt.%) | NR | 48.24% | NR | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
[67] | Tomato ( | Solanum lycopersicum | ) peel | PEF-assisted extraction | EFS:5 kV/cm Total specific energy: 5 kJ/kg |
- | 1:40 g/mL | Acetone | [ | NR | 72] | Sour cherry ( | Prunus cerasus | ) press cake | ||||||||||||||||||||||
[64] | EFS: 5 kV/cm | Specific energy input: 10 kJ/kg Frequency: 10 Hz Pulse width: 20 µs |
Solvent extraction | Olive fruits (Arroniz variety) | NRTime: 24 h Temperature: ambient |
10:1 | Pilot PEF-assisted extraction |
Pilot PEF system | v/w | solvent to press cake | NR | 4.2 ± 0.4 mmol TE/100 g FW | NR | NR | NR | NR | 80.4 ± 2.2 mg/100 g FW | |||||||||||||||||||
Acidified aqueous methanol 70% MeOH and 0.5% HCl, | v/v | NR | 407.90 ± 18.54 mg/100 g | Electric fields: 2 kV/cm | Frequency: 25 Hz | NR | flow rate: 520 kg/h | 168.50 ± 3.99 mg/100 g | Specific energy: 11.25 kJ/kg | NR | 56.10 ± 1.25 μmol TE/g | NR | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
NR | 22.66 kg/100 kg | - | [91]Temperature: 50 Time: 4 h Speed: 160 rpm |
5.2 ± 0.4 mmolTE/100 g FW | 84.0 ± 8.3 mg/100 g FW | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Basil leaves ( | Ocimum Americanum | ) | EFS: 2–3 kV/cm Time: 1–2 min |
Conventional method: maceration | Time: 3 h Temperature: room |
NR | Distilled water 300 mL | 33.15% ± 2.484% | Energy delivered per pulse: 210 J 115.203 ± 1.115 mg GAE/g extract |
NR | NR | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
[102 | NR | ]Specific energy: 7.83 kJ/kg | NR | 75.816 ± 0.723 mg QE/g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Olives (Nocellara del Belice variety) | EFS: 2 kV/cm | Frequency: 25 Hz Pulse width: 50 µs Mass flow rate: 2300 kg/h |
NR | Hammer crusher Malaxation machine |
Malaxation time: 30 min Temperature: 27 °C |
NR | 85.5% | [68] | Sweet Cherries ( | Prunus avium | ) | PEF-assisted pressing | [19] | Rosmary ( | Salvia rosmarinusby | )―product | Frequency: 10 Hz Pulse width: 30 µs Pulses: 167 EFS: 1.1 kV/cm Specific energy input 0.36/kg 24 g of 0.1% aqueous NaCl (1:1.4 | w/v | Variable field strength: 1 kV/cm Frequency: 5 Hz Pulse width: 20 µs Total specific energy input: 10 kJ/kg |
Pressure: 1.64 bar Time: 5 min |
NR | NR | Juice yield40% | ) | Ultrasound assisted | Power: 200 W Temperature: 40 °C Time: 12.48 min |
(1: 20 | w/v | NR | ) | NR | 27.4% | NR | NR | 29.2 ± 1.1 mg/100 mL | NR |
100 mL of 55.19% aqueous EtOH | NR | 297 mg GAE/100 g FW | NR | NR | 593 mg TE/100 g FW | NR | NR | Sweet cherries ( | Prunus avium | ) press cake | PEF-assisted extraction | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Thyme ( | Thymus vulgaris | ) by-productVariable field strength: 0.5–1 kV/cm Frequency: 5 Hz |
Frequency: 10 Hz Pulse width: 20 µs Total specific energy input: 10 kJ/kg |
Time: 24 h Temperature: 25 °C |
5:1 mL/g Solvent–cake ratio |
Acidified aqueous ethanol (50% ethanol; 0.5%HCl, | v/v | ) | NR | NR | NR | 21.0% | NR | NR | 218.0 ± 14.8 mg/100 mL | NR | ||||||||||||||||||||
Pulse width: 30 µs | Pulses:167 EFS: 1.1 kV/cm Specific energy input 0.46 kJ/kg 24 g of 0.1% aqueous NaCl 24 g of 0.1% aqueous NaCl (1:1.5 | w/v | ) | 460 mg GAE/100 g FW | 570 mg TE/100 g FW | [15] | Moringa olifera dry leaves | PEF-assisted extraction | EFS: 7 kV/cm | Time: 40 min Temperature: ambient Pulse duration: 20 ms Pulse interval: 100 µs |
NR | NR | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
[57] | Raspberry press cake | EFS: 1 kV/cm, 3 kV/cm Total specific energy: 1 kJ/kg, 6 kJ/kg Frequency: 20 Hz | NR | 40.24 mg GAE/g of dry matter | 98.31 | 108.22 µmoL AAE/g dry matter | NR | NR | NR | NR | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Pulse width: 20 µs | Solvent extraction | Temperature: ambient | Time: 24 h Shaking speed: 150 rpm |
Solvent to press cake 6:1 mL/g |
50% ethanol, 0.5% HCl, | v/v | NR | 420.8 ± 39.33 mg GAE mg/100 g |
NR | 50.7 ± 3.38 mg/100 g | NR | 24% | NR | [63] | Potato ( | Solanum tuberosum | ) peels | PEF-assisted extraction | Pulse width:3–25 µs Frequency: 1–450 Hz Electric field: 1 kV/cmSpecific energy: 5 kJ/kg |
Time: 30–240 min Temperature: 20–50 °C Speed: 160 rpm |
1:20 g/mL | Water–ethanol mixture Ethanol concentration 50% |
NR | 1263.5 ± 43 mgGAE/kg FW PP | 877.17/kg FWPP | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | ||||||
[69] | Date palm ( | Phoenix dactylifera | ) | PEF-assisted ethanolic extraction | EFS: 3 kV/cm Frequenc:10Hz |
Time: 6 h | 4:1 | v/v | Ethanol–water 300 mL |
NR | 67.35 mg GAE/100 g | 50–72 | NR | 110 µL/mL | 6.75 mg CE/100 g | 2.08 mg/L | 6.10 µg/mL | |||||||||||||||||||
[70] | Tropical almond red leaves ( | Terminalia catappa | ) | PEF-assisted extraction | NR | Frequency: 1 Hz Electric field intensity: 0.75 kV/cm No. of pulses: 50 n |
1:10 | Water | 74.6% | 241.40 ± 2.15 mg GAE/g | 93.40 ± 1.23% | NR | 42 mg/mL | NR | NR | NR | ||||||||||||||||||||
[59] | Red onion ( | Allium cepa | ) | PEF-assisted water extraction | Pulse wide:100 µs Frequency: 1 Hz Electric field intensity: 2.5 kV/cm No. of pulse: 90 Specific energy: 0.23–9.38 kJ/kg |
Time: 2 h Shaking speed: 200 rpm/min Temperature: 42.5 °C |
NR | Distilled water 50 mL |
NR | 102.86 mg GAE/100 g FW | 262.39 % | NR | NR | 37.58 mg QE/100 gFW | NR | NR | ||||||||||||||||||||
[71] | Wild blueberries ( | Vaccinium myrtillus) | PEF-assisted pressing | EFS:3 kV/cm Total specific energy: 10 kJ/kg Frequency: 10 Hz Pulse width: 20 µs |
Time: 8 min Pressure: 1.32 bar |
NR | NR | 56.3 | 45.5% | NR | 35.9 % | NR | NR | 77.5% | NR | |||||||||||||||||||||
[72] | Sour cherries ( | Prunus cerasus | ) | PEF-assisted pressing | EFS: 5 kV/cm total specific energy input:10 kJ/kg constant frequency: 10 Hz pulse width:20 µs |
Pressing time: 9 min | NR | NR | 37.7 g 100/g1 | 133.90 ± 2.67 mg 100/mL Juice |
NR | 6.60 ± 0.13 μmol TE/mL | NR | NR | 53.30 ± 0.97 mg 100/mL Juice |
NR | ||||||||||||||||||||
[73] | Fresh pomelo fruits (Shantian Variety) | - | Number of pulses of 30 Electric field intensity: 4 kV/cm | Temperature: 40 °C | 40:60, | v | / | v | 90 mL ethanol–water | 16.19 mg/mL (naringin) increased by about 20% |
NR | 38.58% increased by 70% |
NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | |||||||||||||||||||
[74] | Thawed blueberries | PEF-assisted pressing | EFSs: 1, 3 kV/cm Total specific energy: 10 kJ/kg Constant frequency: 20 Hz Pulse width: 20 |
Constant pressure: 1.32 bar Time: 8 min |
NR | NR | 36.3 ± 1% | 8.0% | NR | NR | NR | NR | 8.3% | NR |
Phycocyanin | ||||||
References | Rawmaterial | PEFtreatment | Extractionmethod | Extraction conditions | Solvent | Yield |
[105] | Arthrospira platensis | EFS: 25 kV/cm Treatment time: 150 μs Temperature: 40 °C |
PEF-assisted extraction | Temperature: 20 °C Time: 360 min |
19 mL of distilled water | Extraction yield 151.94 ± 14.22 mg/g |
Total Amino Nitrogen Content (TANC) | ||||||
References | Raw material | PEF treatment | Extractionmethod | Extractionconditions | Solvent | Yield |
[43] | Fresh abalone (Haliotis Discus Hannai Ino) viscera | NR | PEF-assisted enzymatic extraction | EFS: 20 kV/cm treatment times: 600 s | NR | 42.35%, 175.20 mg/100 mL |
Lipids | ||||||
References | Rawmaterial | PEF treatment | Extraction method | Extraction conditions | Solvent | Extractedlipid |
[109] | fresh microalgae Auxenochlorella protothecoides |
Flow rate: 0.1 mL/s Pulse duration 1 µs EFS: 4 MV/m Specific energy: 150 kJ/L |
NR | Time: overnight incubation conditions: Temperature: 25 °C Time: 20 h |
Hexane–ethanol blend | 97% |
Pectin | ||||||
References | Raw material | extraction method | Extraction device | Extraction conditions | Powder–solvent ratio | Yield |
[110] | Raw jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) |
Combination of PEF- and microwave-assisted extraction | PEF generator microwave reactor |
PEF conditions: Time: 5 min, EFS: 10 kV/cm. Microwave conditions: Time: 10 min, Power level of 650 W/g |
1:4 | 18.3% |
Cellulose | ||||||
References | Raw material | PEF treatment | Extractionmethod | Solvent | Yield | |
[39] | Mendong Fiber (Fimbristylis globulosa) |
EFS: 1.3 kV/cm Frequency: 20 kHz Time 30 s |
PEF-assisted alkali extraction | NaOH sol. (300 mL) 60% conc. |
97.8% | |
Pigment | ||||||
References | Raw material | PEF treatment | Extraction method | Extraction conditions | Yield | |
[111] | Algae paste of Nannochloropsis oceanica | Constant flow rate: 20 mL/min Temperature: 25 °C Square wave: 5 μs EFS: 10 kV/cm Total specific energy inputs:100 kJ/kg |
PEF-assisted supercritical CO2 extraction | Pressure: 8, 14, and 20 MPa Fixed temperature: 35 °C CO2/biomass ratio: 53.3 kgCO2/kg DW Holding time: 7 min |
Total carotenes: 36% Total chlorophyll: 52% |