Encyclopedia
Flavonoids are metabolites widely distributed in plants and commonly present in foods, such as fruits and vegetables. Pectolinarin, which belongs to the flavone subclass, has attracted considerable attention due to its presence in many medicinal plants. It has turned out to be a good biological agent especially due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antitumor activities, evaluated both in vitro and in vivo. Its aglycone, the metabolite pectolinarigenin, is also known for a series of biological properties including anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic effects. In the first overview on the two metabolites here presented, their collection, isolation and the results of their biological evaluation are reported
- flavonoids
- flavones
- anticancer
1. Definition
Flavonoids are metabolites widely distributed in plants and commonly present in foods, such as fruits and vegetables. Based on several evidences, flavonoids have been associated with the role of preventing and managing current diseases such as cancers, diabetes, and cardiovascular disorders.
Pectolinarin, which belongs to the flavone subclass, has attracted considerable attention due to its presence in many medicinal plants. It has turned out to be a good biological agent especially due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antitumor activities, evaluated both in vitro and in vivo. Its aglycone, the metabolite pectolinarigenin, is also known for a series of biological properties including anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic effects.
2. Introduction
The glycosylated flavone pectolinarin was first isolated from
Linaria vulgaris [1], a known medicinal Chinese herb used for the internal treatement of digestion problems and urinary disorders, in the external treatment of haemorrhoids, venous skin ulcer, as well as for the washing of festering wounds and skin rashes. It has also displayed anti-inflammatory effect [2] and has been used to treat coughs and asthma [3]. The structure of pectolinarin was determined to be a rutinoside conjugate of pectolinarigenin (=5,7-dihydroxy-4,6-dimethoxyflavone, C
[2], a known medicinal Chinese herb used for the internal treatement of digestion problems and urinary disorders, in the external treatment of haemorrhoids, venous skin ulcer, as well as for the washing of festering wounds and skin rashes. It has also displayed anti-inflammatory effect [3] and has been used to treat coughs and asthma [4]. The structure of pectolinarin was determined to be a rutinoside conjugate of pectolinarigenin (=5,7-dihydroxy-4,6-dimethoxyflavone, C
17
H
14
O
6
) at the 7-
O
position (pectolinarigenin-7-
O
-rutinoside, C
29
H
34
O
15
) (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Molecular structures of pectolinarin and pectolinarigenin.
Later, pectolinarin and its aglycone pectolinarigenin were identified as the major constituents in many medicinal herbs from different genera around the world. Several studies reported so far prove that the presence of these two flavones has an important role in affecting the biological properties of the following herbs: i) the Korean herb
Cirsium setidens (Dunn) Nakai employed for the treatment of hemostasis, hematemesis, hematuria and hypertension [4]; ii) the Chinese herb
(Dunn) Nakai employed for the treatment of hemostasis, hematemesis, hematuria and hypertension [5]; ii) the Chinese herb
Cirsium chanroenicum used for detoxification, to treat fever and to enhance blood circulation [5]; iii)
used for detoxification, to treat fever and to enhance blood circulation [6]; iii)
Cirsium japonicum DC. employed as an anti-hemorrhagic and uretic agent, as well as prescribed to treat liver and uterine tumours, and leukemia [6]; iv)
DC. employed as an anti-hemorrhagic and uretic agent, as well as prescribed to treat liver and uterine tumours, and leukemia [7]; iv)
Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janch., used in Pakistan folk medicine as diuretic and against kidney stones [7], fever and rheumatism [8], and during management of snake and scorpion bites [9]; v)
(Wall.) Janch., used in Pakistan folk medicine as diuretic and against kidney stones [8], fever and rheumatism [9], and during management of snake and scorpion bites [10]; v)
Lantana camara L., used for the treatment of various human ailments, such as ulcers, malaria, influenza, tumors, swellings, bilious fever, eczema eruptions, stomach ache, toothache, and as antiseptic for wounds [10]; and vi)
L., used for the treatment of various human ailments, such as ulcers, malaria, influenza, tumors, swellings, bilious fever, eczema eruptions, stomach ache, toothache, and as antiseptic for wounds [11]; and vi)
Picnomon acama (L.) Cass., used in Greek folk medicine as hemostatic and spasmolytic agent [11].
(L.) Cass., used in Greek folk medicine as hemostatic and spasmolytic agent [12].
Due to the structural similarity of pectolinarigenin to known potent flavonoids such as acacetin (5,7-dihydroxy-4′-methoxyflavone, C
16
H
12
O
5
), hispidulin (4′,5,7-trihydroxy-6-methoxyflavone, C
16
H
12
O
6
) and scutellarein (5,6,7,4′-tetrahydroxyflavone, C
15
H
10
O
6
) and based on the numerous data reported for both pectolinarin and pectolinarigenin, the aim of this work is to provide a comprehensive overview focusing on their isolation.
3. Isolation of Pectolinarin and Pectolinarigenin
Over the last 113 years from its first report [1], pectolinarin was isolated in most cases from the aerial parts of 87 plants belonging to 29 differents genera distributing widely around the world. Most of these plants are used in folk medicine in different parts of the world. Table 1 gathers the 87 plants from which pectolinarin was isolated.
Over the last 113 years from its first report [2], pectolinarin was isolated in most cases from the aerial parts of 87 plants belonging to 29 differents genera distributing widely around the world. Most of these plants are used in folk medicine in different parts of the world. Table 1 gathers the 87 plants from which pectolinarin was isolated.
Table 1.
Isolation of pectolinarin from the indicated plants, classified according to family, genus and species, and place of collection.
| Genus | Species |
|---|
Genus |
| Collection Place | Reference |
|---|
|
Species |
Collection Place |
Reference |
|
|
Family: Adoxaceae |
|||
|
Viburnum |
V. cotinifolium V. mullaha |
Kashmir/India Indian Himalayan region |
[13] [14] |
|
Family: Asteraceae |
|||
|
Cirsium |
C. subcoriaceum C. japonicum
C. setosum C. rivulare C. lineare C. nipponicum C. setidens
C. pendulum C. chanroenicum
C. rhinoceros
C. coloradense C. arisanense C. tioganum C. oleraceum
C. microspicatum C. babanum C. kagamontanum C. inundatum C. dipsacolepis C. brevicaule C. yezoense C. kamtschaticum C. pectinellum C. bitchuense
C. senjonse C. spicatum C. yezonese C. vallis-demonii C. gratiosum C. indundatum C. otayae C. purpuratum C. spinosissimum C. spinosum C. ferum C. kawakamii
C. wallichii C. yoshizawae C. matsumurae
C. brevistylum C. chlorolepis |
Pahuatlan/Mexico Daejeon/S. Korea, Oberndorf/Austria, Chengdu/China, Henan/China Oberndorf/Austria Bialystok/Poland Daejeon/S. Korea Daejeon/S. Korea Daejeon, Wonju, Pyongchang-gun, Gangwondo, Jeongseon-gun, Yanggu/S. Korea Daejeon/S. Korea Daejeon, Sancheong/S. Korea Jeongseon-gun, Jeju Island/S. Korea Laramie/USA
Laramie/USA, Vitebsk/Belarus Nemuro, Hatimandake, Memanbetsu, Onsen Kyushu, Hokkaido/Japan
Wyoming/USA, Japan Mount Akaishi, Mount Senmai, Shizuoka, Takanomori, Nekura Valley/Japan, Vitebsk/Belarus, Mount Shirouma/Japan la Dotze/Switzerland Hsien/Taiwan Nemuro, Mount Shirouma /Japan, Mount Ali, Chiayi Hsien/Taiwan Ku Kuan, Taichung Haien/Taiwan Mount Shirouma, Mount Hakusan ad pedem/Japan Vancouver/Canada Seongnam/Korea |
[15] [7,16–20]
[18] [21] [19] [19,22] [19,23–26]
[19] [19,26,27]
[28,29]
[30]
[30–32]
[16]
[33,34]
[17,31,35–37]
[35]
[38] [34] [39] [16,40,41]
[41] [35] [34,40]
[42] [43] |
|
Duranta |
D. plumieri |
Rajshahi/Bangladesh |
[44] |
|
Hemistepta |
H. lyrata |
Kangwon/S. Korea |
[45] |
|
Picnomon |
P. acarna |
Mount Hortiatis/Greece |
[46] |
|
Family: Bignoniaceae |
|||
|
Distictella |
D. elongata |
Minas Gerais State/Brazil |
[47] |
|
Markhamia |
M. lutea |
Benguluru/India |
[48] |
|
Family: Buddlejaceae |
|||
|
Buddleja |
B. officinalis |
Anhui/China |
[49] |
|
Family: Ericaceae |
|||
|
Rhododendron |
R. arboreum |
Aligarh/India |
[50] |
|
Family: Gesneriaceae |
|||
|
Corallodiscus |
C. flabellate |
Kunming/China |
[51] |
|
Aeschynanthus |
A. moningeriae |
Jinhua/China |
[52] |
|
Family: Lamiaceae |
|||
|
Leucosceptrum |
L. canum |
Tibet/China |
[53] |
|
Teucrium |
T. hyrcanicum |
Sicily/Italy |
[54] |
|
Family: Lythraceae |
|||
|
Lawsonia |
L. inermis |
Thanjavur/India |
[55] |
|
Family: Moraceae |
|||
|
Clerodedrum |
C. phlomides |
Tamil Nadu/India |
[56] |
|
Family: Orchidaceae |
|||
|
Oncidium |
O. baueri |
Londrina/Brazil |
[57,58] |
|
Family: Orobanchaceae |
|||
|
Melampyrum |
M. roseum |
Suwon/S. Korea |
[59] |
|
Family: Plantaginaceae |
|||
|
Scoparia |
S. dulcis |
Nanning/China |
[60] |
|
Family: Poaceae |
|||
|
Oryza |
O. sativa |
a) |
[61] |
|
Family: Ranunculaceae |
|||
|
Trollius |
T. ledebourii |
Hebei/China |
[62] |
|
Family: Rosaceae |
|||
|
Kerria |
K. japonica var. |
Chongqing/China |
[63] |
|
Crataegus |
C. laevigata |
Bremen/Germany |
[64] |
|
Family: Santalaceae |
|||
|
Thesium |
T. chinense |
Anhui/China |
[65] |
|
Family: Scrophulariaceae |
|||
|
Linaria |
L. vulgaris
L. japonica
L. reflexa
L. vulgariformis L. popovii L. kurdica L. sessili L. kokanica L. haelava L. simplex L. genistifolia L. dalmatica |
Sofia/Bulgaria, Tachkent/Uzbekistan Heilongjiang/China Tottori Prefecture/Japan Constantine/Algeria, Calabria/Italy Tachkent/Uzbekistan
Pamir/Tajikistan
Mansoura/Egypt Sofia/Bulgaria |
[2,66–68]
[69–71]
[72–75]
[66]
[76]
[77] [67]
|
|
|
L. scariosa |
Msila/Algeria |
[78] |
|
Kickxia |
K. elatine K. heterophylla K. ramosissima K. abhaica
K. spuria
K. aegyptiaca |
Dustlik/Uzbekistan Mansoura/Egypt Ankara/Turkey Baljurashi/Saudi Arabia Appennines hills/Italy Saudi Arabia |
[79] [80] [81,82] [83]
[84]
[85] |
|
Family: Verbenaceae |
|||
|
Morus |
M. alba L. |
Hongseong/Korea |
[86] |
|
Lantana L. camara |
Taichung/Taiwan, Palampur/India, Karachi/Pakistan, Ceará state/Brazil, Manado/Indonesia, Okinawa/Japan |
[87–92] |
|
|
Lippia L. rubella |
Minas Gerais/Brazil |
[93] |
|
|
Family: Winteraceae |
|||
|
Tasmannia |
T. lanceolata |
Go Wild Harvest/Australia |
[94] |
| Family: Adoxaceae | |||
| Viburnum | V. cotinifolium | Kashmir/India | [12] |
| V. mullaha | Indian Himalayan region | [13] |
|
| Family: Asteraceae | |||
| Family: Winteraceae | |||
| Tasmannia | |||
| T. lanceolata | |||
| Go Wild Harvest/Australia | |||
| [ | |||
| 93 | |||
| ] | |||
| Cirsium | C. subcoriaceum | Pahuatlan/Mexico | [14] |
| C. japonicum | Daejeon/S. Korea, Oberndorf/Austria, Chengdu/China, Henan/China | [6][15][16][17][18][19] | |
| Oberndorf/Austria | |||
| Bialystok/Poland | |||
| Daejeon/S. Korea | |||
| C. setosum | Daejeon/S. Korea | [17] | |
| C. rivulare | Daejeon, Wonju, Pyongchang-gun, Gangwondo, Jeongseon-gun, Yanggu/S. Korea | [20] | |
| C. lineare | Daejeon/S. Korea | [18] | |
| C. nipponicum | Daejeon, Sancheong/S. Korea | [18][21] | |
| C. setidens | Jeongseon-gun, Jeju Island/S. Korea | [18][22][23][24][25] | |
| Laramie/USA | |||
| Laramie/USA, Vitebsk/Belarus | |||
| C. pendulum | Nemuro, Hatimandake, Memanbetsu, Onsen Kyushu, Hokkaido/Japan | [18] | |
| C. chanroenicum | [18][25][26] | ||
| C. rhinoceros | [27][28] | ||
| C. coloradense | Wyoming/USA, Japan | [29] | |
| C. arisanense | Mount Akaishi, Mount Senmai, Shizuoka, Takanomori, Nekura Valley/Japan, Vitebsk/Belarus, | ||
| C. tioganum | Mount Shirouma/Japan | ||
| C. oleraceum | la Dotze/Switzerland | [29][30][31] | |
| Hsien/Taiwan | |||
| C. microspicatum | Nemuro, Mount Shirouma /Japan, Mount Ali, Chiayi Hsien/Taiwan | [15] | |
| C. babanum | Ku Kuan, Taichung Haien/Taiwan | ||
| C. kagamontanum | Mount Shirouma, Mount Hakusan ad pedem/Japan | ||
| C. inundatum | Vancouver/Canada | ||
| C. dipsacolepis | Seongnam/Korea | ||
| C. brevicaule | |||
| C. yezoense | |||
| C. kamtschaticum | |||
| C. pectinellum | |||
| C. bitchuense | [32][33] | ||
| C. senjonse | [16][30][34][35][36] | ||
| C. spicatum | |||
| C. yezonese | |||
| C. vallis-demonii | |||
| C. gratiosum | |||
| C. indundatum | |||
| C. otayae | [34] | ||
| C. purpuratum | |||
| C. spinosissimum | [37] | ||
| C. spinosum | [33] | ||
| C. ferum | [38] | ||
| C. kawakamii | [15][39][40] | ||
| C. wallichii | [40] | ||
| C. yoshizawae | [34] | ||
| C. matsumurae | [33] | ||
| C. brevistylum | [41] | ||
| C. chlorolepis | [42] | ||
| Duranta | D. plumieri | Rajshahi/Bangladesh | [43] |
| Hemistepta | H. lyrata | Kangwon/S. Korea | [44] |
| Picnomon | P. acarna | Mount Hortiatis/Greece | [45] |
| Family: Bignoniaceae | |||
| Distictella | D. elongata | Minas Gerais State/Brazil | [46] |
| Markhamia | M. lutea | Benguluru/India | [47] |
| Family: Buddlejaceae | |||
| Buddleja | B. officinalis | Anhui/China | [48] |
| Family: Ericaceae | |||
| Rhododendron | R. arboreum | Aligarh/India | [49] |
| Family: Gesneriaceae | |||
| Corallodiscus | C. flabellate | Kunming/China | [50] |
| Aeschynanthus | A. moningeriae | Jinhua/China | [51] |
| Family: Lamiaceae | |||
| Leucosceptrum | L. canum | Tibet/China | [52] |
| Teucrium | T. hyrcanicum | Sicily/Italy | [53] |
| Family: Lythraceae | |||
| Lawsonia | L. inermis | Thanjavur/India | [54] |
| Family: Moraceae | |||
| Clerodedrum | C. phlomides | Tamil Nadu/India | [55] |
| Family: Orchidaceae | |||
| Oncidium | O. baueri | Londrina/Brazil | [56][57] |
| Family: Orobanchaceae | |||
| Melampyrum | M. roseum | Suwon/S. Korea | [58] |
| Family: Plantaginaceae | |||
| Scoparia | S. dulcis | Nanning/China | [59] |
| Family: Poaceae | |||
| Oryza | O. sativa | a) | [60] |
| Family: Ranunculaceae | |||
| Trollius | T. ledebourii | Hebei/China | [61] |
| Family: Rosaceae | |||
| Kerria | K. japonica var. | Chongqing/China | [62] |
| Crataegus | C. laevigata | Bremen/Germany | [63] |
| Family: Santalaceae | |||
| Thesium | T. chinense | Anhui/China | [64] |
| Family: Scrophulariaceae | |||
| Linaria | L. vulgaris | Sofia/Bulgaria, Tachkent/Uzbekistan | [1][65][66][67] |
| L. japonica | Heilongjiang/China | [68][69][70] | |
| L. reflexa | Tottori Prefecture/Japan | [71][72][73][74] | |
| L. vulgariformis | Constantine/Algeria, Calabria/Italy | [65] | |
| L. popovii | Tachkent/Uzbekistan | ||
| L. kurdica | |||
| L. sessili | [75] | ||
| L. kokanica | Pamir/Tajikistan | ||
| L. haelava | [76] | ||
| L. simplex | Mansoura/Egypt | [66] | |
| L. genistifolia | Sofia/Bulgaria | ||
| L. dalmatica | |||
| L. scariosa | Msila/Algeria | [77] | |
| Kickxia | K. elatine | Dustlik/Uzbekistan | [78] |
| K. heterophylla | Mansoura/Egypt | [79] | |
| K. ramosissima | Ankara/Turkey | [80][81] |
|
| K. abhaica | Baljurashi/Saudi Arabia | [82] | |
| Appennines hills/Italy | |||
| K. spuria | Saudi Arabia | [83] | |
| K. aegyptiaca | [84] | ||
| Family: Verbenaceae | |||
| Morus | M. alba L. | Hongseong/Korea | [85] |
| Lantana L. camara | Taichung/Taiwan, Palampur/India, Karachi/Pakistan, Ceará state/Brazil, Manado/Indonesia, Okinawa/Japan | [86][87][88][89][90][91] | |
| Lippia L. rubella | Minas Gerais/Brazil | [92] | |
a
Not found.
Pectolinarigenin is the aglycone part of pectolinarin, which is obtained by hydrolysis reaction [72]. It is also a natural product, isolated and identified from 136 plantes of 71 differents genera. The data are summarized in Table 2, indicating that pectolinarigenin was isolated from 20 different families, especially from Asteraceae with 33 genera and 64 species (47.1%), Lamiaceae with 9 genera and 19 species (14%) and Verbenaceae with 4 genera and 10 species (8%).
Pectolinarigenin is the aglycone part of pectolinarin, which is obtained by hydrolysis reaction [73]. It is also a natural product, isolated and identified from 136 plantes of 71 differents genera. The data are summarized in Table 2, indicating that pectolinarigenin was isolated from 20 different families, especially from Asteraceae with 33 genera and 64 species (47.1%), Lamiaceae with 9 genera and 19 species (14%) and Verbenaceae with 4 genera and 10 species (8%).
Table 2.
Isolation of pectolinarigenin from the indicated plants, classified according to family, genus and species, and place of collection.
| Genus | Species | Collection Place | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| [ | |||
| 215 | |||
| ] | |||
|
Genus |
Species |
Collection Place |
Reference |
|
Family: Apiaceae |
|||
|
Coriandrum |
C. sativum |
Faisalabad/Pakistan |
[99] |
|
Family: Aspleniaceae |
|||
|
Asplenium |
A. glaucophyllum |
West Malysia |
[100] |
|
|
A. normale |
West Malaysia |
[101] |
|
Family: Asteraceae |
|||
|
Achillea |
A. collina |
wet lowland meadows/UK |
[102] |
|
|
A. asplenifolia |
|
|
|
Ajania |
A. potaninii |
Gansu/China |
[103] |
|
Ambrosia |
A. camphorate |
Baja California/Mexico |
[104] |
|
Arnica |
A. angustifolia |
northwest Canada and Alaska |
[105] |
|
|
A. Montana |
California/USA |
[106] |
|
|
A. chamissonis |
Graines Voltz/France |
[107] |
|
|
A. montana |
Šumava Mounts/Czech |
[108] |
|
Artemisia |
A. mongolica |
Gansu/China |
[109] |
|
|
A. judaica |
St. Catherine, Sinai/Egypt |
[110] |
|
|
A. monosperma |
Cairo/Egypt |
|
|
|
A. herba-alba |
Mount Moses/Egypt |
|
|
|
A. xerophytica |
South Gobi Aimak/Mongolia |
[111] |
|
|
A. glabella |
Karaganda/Kazakhstan |
[112] |
|
|
A. vestita |
Lhasa/Tibet |
[113] |
|
Baccharis |
B. trinervis |
Costa Rica |
[114] |
|
|
B. decussata |
Venezuela |
[115] |
|
|
B. concave |
|
[116] |
|
|
B. uncinella |
Campos do Jordão/Brazil |
[117] |
|
|
B. conferta |
Veracruz/Mexico |
[118] |
|
Centaurea |
C. alexandrina |
Alexandria/Egypt |
[119] |
|
|
C. aspera |
Ribera Baixa/Spain |
[120] |
|
|
C. cariensis |
|
[121] |
|
|
C. collina |
Valencia/Spain |
[122] |
|
|
C. sadleriana |
Jakabszállás/Hungary |
[123] |
|
|
C. moesiaca |
Malashevska planina/Bulgaria |
[124] |
|
|
C. behen |
Iran |
[125] |
|
Chromolaena |
C. odorata |
Chonburi/Thailand |
[126] |
|
Chrysanthemum |
C. pacificum |
Tsukuba/Japan |
27 |
|
|
C. shiwogiku |
Muroto-misaki/Japan |
|
|
|
C. kinokuniense |
Tsukuba/Japan |
|
|
|
C. rupestre |
Mount Mikuni/Japan |
|
|
Cirsium |
C. setidens |
Jeongseon-gun, Halla of jejudo, Daejeon, Kangwon, Yanggu/S. Korea; Guerrero/Mexico; |
[19,24–28,127] |
|
|
C. chanroenicum |
Daejeon, Ulsan, Sancheong/S. Korea |
[26,128] |
|
|
C. japonicum |
Jiang Xi/China |
[129] |
|
|
C. arvense |
Musa Khel Bannu/Pakistan |
[130] |
|
|
C. nipponicum |
Suwon/S. Korea |
[131] |
|
|
C. rhinoceros |
|
[132] |
|
Dichrocephala |
D. integrifolia |
Shanghai/China |
[133] |
|
Dugaldia |
D. pinetorum |
Nuevo Lebn/Mexico |
[134] |
|
Eriocephalus |
E. giessii |
Aus-Koppies/Namibia |
[135] |
|
Eupatorium |
E. cannabinum |
Gronigen/Netherlands |
[136] |
|
|
E. odoratum |
Kuala Pilah/Malaysia |
[137,138] |
|
|
E. semiserratum |
Arkansas/USA |
[139] |
|
Fragrant |
F. Eupatorium |
Guangxi/China |
[140] |
|
Grindelia |
G. glutinosa |
Poconchile, Valle de Liuta, Tarapaca/Chile |
[141] |
|
Gutierrezia |
G. mandonii |
Salta/Argentina |
[142] |
|
Helenium |
H. integrifolium |
|
[143] |
|
Heterotheca |
H. latifolia |
San Luis/Argentina |
[144] |
|
Hemistepta |
H. lyrata |
Kangwon/S. Korea |
[45] |
|
Hymenoxys |
H. jamesii |
Coconino/USA |
[145] |
|
Iva |
I. nevadensis |
Tonopah/USA |
[146] |
|
|
I. frutescens |
Franklin/USA |
[147] |
|
Jungia |
J. polita |
San Martin/Argentina |
[148] |
|
Olearia |
O. paniculata |
Dunedin/New Zealand |
[149] |
|
Onopordon |
O. corymbosum |
Barracas, Castellon/Spain |
[150] |
|
|
O. nervosum |
a) |
[151] |
|
Santolina |
S. chamaecyparissus |
Lyon/France |
[152] |
|
|
S. pinnata |
Pisa/Italy |
[153] |
|
Saussurea |
S. elegans |
Murghab/Tajikistan |
[154] |
|
Schkuhria |
S. pinnata |
Cordoba/Argentina |
[155] |
|
Seriphidium |
S. santolium |
Xinjiang Uigour/China |
[156] |
|
Stevia |
S. laxiflora |
Cuernavaca, Morelos/Mexico |
[157] |
|
Vernonia |
V. cinerea |
Pahang/Malaysia |
[158] |
|
Family: Betulaceae |
|||
|
Alnus |
A. glutinosa |
Darmstadt/Germany |
[159] |
|
|
A. japonica |
|
[160] |
|
Betula |
B. ermanii |
|
[159] |
|
|
B. verrucosa |
a) |
[161] |
|
|
B. pubescens |
Biebrza/Poland |
[162] |
|
|
B. pendula |
|
|
|
Family: Bignoniaceae |
|||
|
Millingtonia |
M. hortensis |
Khon Kaen/Thailand |
[163] |
|
Family: Blechnaceae |
|||
|
Brainea |
B. insignis |
Yunnan/China |
[164] |
|
Family: Boraginaceae |
|||
|
Eriodictyon |
E. tomentosum |
Placer Co./USA |
[165] |
|
Family: Fabaceae |
|||
|
Adesmia |
A. grandiflora |
a) |
[166] |
|
|
A. trijuga |
|
|
|
|
A. horrida |
|
|
|
|
A. retrofracta |
|
|
|
Ononis |
O. fruticosa |
Los Castanõs/Spain |
[167] |
|
|
O. natrix |
|
|
|
|
O. rotundifolia |
a) |
[168] |
|
Trifolium |
T. pratense |
Trout Lake/USA |
[169] |
|
Family: Lamiaceae |
|||
|
Leucosceptrum |
L. canum |
a) |
[170] |
|
Mentha |
M. pulegium |
Petite Kabylie/Algeria |
[171] |
|
|
M. suaveolens |
|
|
|
Ocimum |
O. americanum |
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew/England |
[172] |
|
Otostegia |
O. fruticosa |
St. Catherine/Egypt |
[173] |
|
Salvia |
S. trilobu |
Marmara island/Turkey |
[174] |
|
|
S. hypoleuca |
Elbruz moun/Russia |
[175] |
|
|
S. pedicellata |
a) |
[176] |
|
|
S. yosgadensis |
Sultanhani/Turkey |
[177] |
|
|
S. plebeia |
a) |
[178] |
|
|
S. pilifera |
Berit Mount/Turkey |
[179] |
|
|
S. tomentosa |
Sofia/Bulgaria |
[180] |
|
|
S. argentea |
|
|
|
Scutellaria |
S. polyodon |
a) |
[181] |
|
|
S. przewalskii |
Susamyr/Kyrgyzstan |
[182] |
|
Sideritis |
S. gomerae |
Canary islands/Spain |
[183] |
|
Teucrium |
T. chamaedrys |
Eskisehir/Turkey |
[184] |
|
Thymus |
T. longicaulis |
Sar planina/Macedonia |
[185] |
|
|
T. glabrescens |
Skopje/Macedonia |
|
|
Family: Lythraceae |
|||
|
Lawsonia |
L. inermis |
Thanjavur/India |
[153] |
|
Family: Nothofagaceae |
|||
|
Nothofagus |
N. dombeyi |
Altos de Lircay/Chile |
[186] |
|
Family: Orobanchaceae |
|||
|
Striga |
S. passargei |
a) |
[187] |
|
|
S. aspera |
a) |
[188] |
|
Family: Padaliacea |
|||
|
Sesamum |
S. indicum |
Gambang/Malaysia |
[189] |
|
Family: Plantaginaceae |
|||
|
Digitalis |
D. trojana |
Kizilcahamam, DemirkOy/Turkey |
[190] |
|
|
D. orientalis |
|
|
|
|
D. lanata |
a) |
[191] |
|
Hebe |
H. cupressoides |
Dunedin/New Zealand |
[192] |
|
Veronica |
V. chamaedrys |
Rila Mount/Bulgaria |
[193] |
|
Veronicastrum |
V. latifolium |
Yongkang/China |
[194] |
|
Family: Portulacaceae |
|||
|
Portulaca |
P. oleracea |
Tianjin/China |
[195] |
|
Family: Ranunculaceae |
|||
|
Trollius |
T. chinensis |
Hebei/China |
[196] |
|
Family: Rosaceae |
|||
|
Rosa |
R. damascena |
Plovdiv/Bulgaria |
[197] |
|
|
R. rugosa |
Botanischer Garten der TU Darmstadt/Germany |
[198] |
|
Family: Scrophulariaceae |
|||
|
Buddleia |
B. macrostachya |
Sibsagar/India |
[199] |
|
Kickxia |
K. ramosissima |
Takht-e-Nusrati/Pakistan |
[200–202] |
|
Limnophila |
L. aromatica |
Ho Chi Minh/Vietnam |
[203] |
|
Linaria |
L. vulgaris |
Ukrania; China |
[68,204] |
|
|
L. reflexa |
Constantine/Algeria |
[73] |
|
|
L. kurdica |
Ukrania |
[204] |
|
|
L. scariosa |
Msila/Algeria |
[78] |
|
Family: Verbenaceae |
|||
|
Clerodendrum |
C. siphonenthus |
Calcutta, Kalyani/India |
[205,206] |
|
|
C. phlomidis |
Pondicherry, Alanthurai/India |
[205–210] |
|
|
C. serratum |
Bhilai/India |
[211] |
|
|
C. inerme |
Pondicherry/India |
[212,213] |
|
|
C. neriifolium |
a) |
[214] |
|
|
C. indicum |
a)Khao Kho/Thailand |
[215,216] |
|
Duranta |
D. repens |
a) |
[217] |
|
|
D. plumieri |
a) |
[44,218] |
|
Lantana |
L. camara |
Taichung/Taiwan, Palampur/India, Karachi/Pakistan, Ceará state/Brazil, Manado/Indonesia, Okinawa/Japan |
[87–92] |
|
Lippia |
L. citriodora |
Athens/Greece |
[219] |
|
Family: Zosteraceae |
|||
|
Phyllospadix |
P. japonica |
Omaezaki/Japan |
[220] |
| Family: Apiaceae | |||
| Coriandrum | C. sativum | Faisalabad/Pakistan | [94] |
| Family: Aspleniaceae | |||
| Asplenium | A. glaucophyllum | West Malysia | [95] |
| A. normale | West Malaysia | [96] | |
| Family: Asteraceae | |||
| Achillea | A. collina | wet lowlandmeadows/UK | [97] |
| A. asplenifolia | |||
| Ajania | A. potaninii | Gansu/China | [98] |
| Ambrosia | A. camphorate | Baja California/Mexico | [99] |
| Arnica | A. angustifolia | northwestCanada and Alaska | [100] |
| A. Montana | California/USA | [101] | |
| A. chamissonis | Graines Voltz/France | [102] |
|
| A. montana | Šumava Mounts/Czech | [103] | |
| Artemisia | A. mongolica | Gansu/China | [104] |
| A. judaica | St. Catherine, Sinai/Egypt | [105] | |
| A. monosperma | Cairo/Egypt | ||
| A. herba-alba | Mount Moses/Egypt | ||
| A. xerophytica | South Gobi Aimak/Mongolia | [106] |
|
| A. glabella | Karaganda/Kazakhstan | [107] | |
| A. vestita | Lhasa/Tibet | [108] | |
| Baccharis | B. trinervis | Costa Rica | [109] |
| B. decussata | Venezuela | [110] | |
| B. concave | [111] | ||
| B. uncinella | Campos do Jordão/Brazil | [112] | |
| B. conferta | Veracruz/Mexico | [113] | |
| Centaurea | C. alexandrina | Alexandria/Egypt | [114] |
| C. aspera | Ribera Baixa/Spain | [115] | |
| C. cariensis | [116] |
||
| C. collina | Valencia/Spain | [117] | |
| C. sadleriana | Jakabszállás/Hungary | [118] | |
| C. moesiaca | Malashevska planina/Bulgaria | [119] | |
| C. behen | Iran | [120] | |
| Chromolaena | C. odorata | Chonburi/Thailand | [121] |
| Chrysanthemum | C. pacificum | Tsukuba/Japan | [26] |
| C. shiwogiku | Muroto-misaki/Japan | ||
| C. kinokuniense | Tsukuba/Japan | ||
| C. rupestre | Mount Mikuni/Japan | ||
| Cirsium | C. setidens | Jeongseon-gun, Halla of jejudo, Daejeon, Kangwon, Yanggu/S. Korea; Guerrero/Mexico; | [18][23][24][25][26][27][122] |
| C. chanroenicum | Daejeon, Ulsan, Sancheong/S. Korea | [25][123] |
|
| C. japonicum | Jiang Xi/China | [124] | |
| C. arvense | Musa Khel Bannu/Pakistan | [125] | |
| C. nipponicum | Suwon/S. Korea | [126] | |
| C. rhinoceros | [127] | ||
| Dichrocephala | D. integrifolia | Shanghai/China | [128] |
| Dugaldia | D. pinetorum | Nuevo Lebn/Mexico | [129] |
| Eriocephalus | E. giessii | Aus-Koppies/Namibia | [130] |
| Eupatorium | E. cannabinum | Gronigen/Netherlands | [131] |
| E. odoratum | Kuala Pilah/Malaysia | [132][133] | |
| E. semiserratum | Arkansas/USA | [134] | |
| Fragrant | F. Eupatorium | Guangxi/China | [135] |
| Grindelia | G. glutinosa | Poconchile, Valle deLiuta, Tarapaca/Chile | [136] |
| Gutierrezia | G. mandonii | Salta/Argentina | [137] |
| Helenium | H. integrifolium | [138] | |
| Heterotheca | H. latifolia | San Luis/Argentina | [139] |
| Hemistepta | H. lyrata | Kangwon/S. Korea | [44] |
| Hymenoxys | H. jamesii | Coconino/USA | [140] |
| Iva | I. nevadensis | Tonopah/USA | [141] |
| I. frutescens | Franklin/USA | [142] | |
| Jungia | J. polita | San Martin/Argentina | [143] |
| Olearia | O. paniculata | Dunedin/New Zealand | [144] |
| Onopordon | O. corymbosum | Barracas, Castellon/Spain | [145] |
| O. nervosum | a) | [146] |
|
| Santolina | S. chamaecyparissus | Lyon/France | [147] |
| S. pinnata | Pisa/Italy | [148] | |
| Saussurea | S. elegans | Murghab/Tajikistan | [149] |
| Schkuhria | S. pinnata | Cordoba/Argentina | [150] |
| Seriphidium | S. santolium | Xinjiang Uigour/China | [151] |
| Stevia | S. laxiflora | Cuernavaca, Morelos/Mexico | [152] |
| Vernonia | V. cinerea | Pahang/Malaysia | [153] |
| Family: Betulaceae | |||
| Alnus | A. glutinosa | Darmstadt/Germany | [154] |
| A. japonica | [155] | ||
| Betula | B. ermanii | [154] | |
| B. verrucosa | a) | [156] | |
| B. pubescens | Biebrza/Poland | [157] | |
| B. pendula | |||
| Family: Bignoniaceae | |||
| Millingtonia | M. hortensis | Khon Kaen/Thailand | [158] |
| Family: Blechnaceae | |||
| Brainea | B. insignis | Yunnan/China | [159] |
| Family: Boraginaceae | |||
| Eriodictyon | E. tomentosum | Placer Co./USA | [160] |
| Family: Fabaceae | |||
| Adesmia | A. grandiflora | a) | [161] |
| A. trijuga | |||
| A. horrida | |||
| A. retrofracta | |||
| Ononis | O. fruticosa | Los Castanõs/Spain | [162] |
| O. natrix | |||
| O. rotundifolia | a) | [163] | |
| Trifolium | T. pratense | Trout Lake/USA | [164] |
| Family: Lamiaceae | |||
| Leucosceptrum | L. canum | a) | [165] |
| Mentha | M. pulegium | Petite Kabylie/Algeria | [166] |
| M. suaveolens | |||
| Ocimum | O. americanum | RoyalBotanic Gardens, Kew/England | [167] |
| Otostegia | O. fruticosa | St. Catherine/Egypt | [168] |
| Salvia | S. trilobu | Marmara island/Turkey | [169] |
| S. hypoleuca | Elbruz moun/Russia | [170] | |
| S. pedicellata | a) | [171] |
|
| S. yosgadensis | Sultanhani/Turkey | [172] | |
| S. plebeia | a) | [173] | |
| S. pilifera | Berit Mount/Turkey | [174] | |
| S. tomentosa | Sofia/Bulgaria | [175] |
|
| S. argentea | |||
| Scutellaria | S. polyodon | a) | [176] |
| S. przewalskii | Susamyr/Kyrgyzstan | [177] | |
| Sideritis | S. gomerae | Canary islands/Spain | [178] |
| Teucrium | T. chamaedrys | Eskisehir/Turkey | [179] |
| Thymus | T. longicaulis | Sar planina/Macedonia | [180] |
| T. glabrescens | Skopje/Macedonia | ||
| Family: Lythraceae | |||
| Lawsonia | L. inermis | Thanjavur/India | [148] |
| Family: Nothofagaceae | |||
| Nothofagus | N. dombeyi | Altos de Lircay/Chile | [181] |
| Family: Orobanchaceae | |||
| Striga | S. passargei | a) | [182] |
| S. aspera | a) | [183] | |
| Family: Padaliacea | |||
| Sesamum | S. indicum | Gambang/Malaysia | [184] |
| Family: Plantaginaceae | |||
| Digitalis | D. trojana | Kizilcahamam, DemirkOy/Turkey | [185] |
| D. orientalis | |||
| D. lanata | a) | [186] |
|
| Hebe | H. cupressoides | Dunedin/New Zealand | [187] |
| Veronica | V. chamaedrys | Rila Mount/Bulgaria | [188] |
| Veronicastrum | V. latifolium | Yongkang/China | [189] |
| Family: Portulacaceae | |||
| Portulaca | P. oleracea | Tianjin/China | [190] |
| Family: Ranunculaceae | |||
| Trollius | T. chinensis | Hebei/China | [191] |
| Family: Rosaceae | |||
| Rosa | R. damascena | Plovdiv/Bulgaria | [192] |
| R. rugosa | Botanischer Garten der TU Darmstadt/Germany | [193] | |
| Family: Scrophulariaceae | |||
| Buddleia | B. macrostachya | Sibsagar/India | [194] |
| Kickxia | K. ramosissima | Takht-e-Nusrati/Pakistan | [195][196][197] |
| Limnophila | L. aromatica | Ho Chi Minh/Vietnam | [198] |
| Linaria | L. vulgaris | Ukrania; China | [67][199] |
| L. reflexa | Constantine/Algeria | [72] | |
| L. kurdica | Ukrania | [199] | |
| L. scariosa | Msila/Algeria | [77] | |
| Family: Verbenaceae | |||
| Clerodendrum | C. siphonenthus | Calcutta, Kalyani/India | [200][201] |
| C. phlomidis | Pondicherry, Alanthurai/India | [200][201][202][203][204][205] | |
| C. serratum | Bhilai/India | [206] | |
| C. inerme | Pondicherry/India | [207][208] | |
| C. neriifolium | a) | [209] | |
| C. indicum | a)Khao Kho/Thailand | [210][211] | |
| Duranta | D. repens | a) | [212] |
| D. plumieri | a) | [43][213] | |
| Lantana | L. camara | Taichung/Taiwan, Palampur/India, Karachi/Pakistan, Ceará state/Brazil, Manado/Indonesia, Okinawa/Japan | [86][87][88][89][90][91] |
| Lippia | L. citriodora | Athens/Greece | [214] |
| Family: Zosteraceae | |||
| Phyllospadix | P. japonica | Omaezaki/Japan | |
- a)
- not found.
