References

1. Seddon, A.W.R.; Macias-Fauria, M.; Long, P.R.; Benz, D.; Willis, K. Sensitivity of global terrestrial ecosystems to climate variability. Nat. Cell Biol. 2016, 531, 229–232.
2. Liu, Z.; Notaro, M.; Kutzbach, J.; Liu, N. Assessing Global Vegetation–Climate Feedbacks from Observations. J. Clim. 2006, 19, 787–814.
3. Turner, M.G.; Calder, W.J.; Cumming, G.; Hughes, T.P.; Jentsch, A.; LaDeau, S.; Lenton, T.M.; Shuman, B.N.; Turetsky, M.R.; Ratajczak, Z.; et al. Climate change, ecosystems and abrupt change: Science priorities. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2020, 375, 20190105.
4. Zhang, Y.; Ye, A. Spatial and temporal variations in vegetation coverage observed using AVHRR GIMMS and Terra MODIS data in the mainland of China. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2020, 41, 4238–4268.
5. Mennis, J. Exploring the Influence of ENSO on African Vegetation Variability Using Multidimensional Map Algebra. Giscience Remote Sens. 2006, 43, 352–376.
6. Fensholt, R.; Proud, S.R. Evaluation of Earth Observation Based Global Long Term Vegetation Trends — Comparing GIMMS and MODIS Global NDVI Time Series. Remote. Sens. Environ. 2012, 119, 131–147.
7. Anyamba, A.; Tucker, C.J.; Mahoney, R. From El Niño to La Niña: Vegetation response patterns over east and southern Africa during the 1997–2000 period. J. Clim. 2002, 15, 3096–3103.
8. Fer, I.; Tietjen, B.; Jeltsch, F.; Wolff, C. The influence of El Niño–Southern Oscillation regimes on eastern African vegetation and its future implications under the RCP8.5 warming scenario. Biogeosciences 2017, 14, 4355–4374.
9. Kalisa, W.; Igbawua, T.; Henchiri, M.; Ali, S.; Zhang, S.; Bai, Y.; Zhang, J. Assessment of climate impact on vege-tation dynamics over East Africa from 1982 to 2015. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 1–20.
10. Plisnier, P.D.; Serneels, S.; Lambin, E.F. Impact of ENSO on East African ecosystems: A multivariate analysis based on climate and remote sensing data. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 2000, 9, 481–497.
11. Pettorelli, N.A.; Chauvenet, J.P. Duffy Tracking the effect of climate change on ecosystem functioning using protected areas: Africa as a case study. Ecol. Indic. 2012, 20, 269–276.
12. Pricope, N.G.; Husak, G.; Lopez-Carr, D.; Funk, C.; Michaelsen, J. The climate-population nexus in the East Af-rican Horn: Emerging degradation trends in rangeland and pastoral livelihood zones. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2013, 23, 1525–1541.
13. Wang, X.; Wu, C.; Peng, D.; Gonsamo, A.; Liu, Z. Snow cover phenology affects alpine vegetation growth dy-namics on the Tibetan Plateau: Satellite observed evidence, impacts of different biomes, and climate drivers. Agric. For. Meteorol. 2018, 256, 61–74.
14. IPCC. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., Midgley, P.M., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge UK; New York, NY, USA, 2013; 1535p.
15. Wu, Z.; Wu, J.; Liu, J.; He, B.; Lei, T.; Wang, Q. Increasing terrestrial vegetation activity of ecological restoration program in the Beijing–Tianjin Sand Source Region of China. Ecol. Eng. 2013, 52, 37–50.
16. Hua, L.; Wang, H.; Sui, H.; Wardlow, B.; Hayes, M.J.; Wang, J. Mapping the spatial-temporal dynamics of vege-tation response lag to drought in a semi-arid region. Remote Sens. 2019, 11, 1873.
17. Turner, M.G. Disturbance and landscape dynamics in a changing world. Ecology 2010, 91, 2833–2849.
18. Wang, X.; Piao, S.; Ciais, P.; Li, J.; Friedlingstein, P.; Koven, C.; Chen, A. Spring temperature change and its implication in the change of vegetation growth in North America from 1982 to 2006. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 1240–1245.
19. Chen, C.; He, B.; Yuan, W.; Guo, L.; Zhang, Y. Increasing interannual variability of global vegetation greenness. Environ. Res. Lett. 2019, 14, 124005.
20. Frederiksen, J.S.; Frederiksen, C.S.; Osbrough, S.L.; Sisson, J.M. Changes in Southern Hemisphere rainfall, circulation and weather systems. In Proceedings of the 19th International Congress on Modelling and Simulation, Perth, Australia, 12–16 December 2011; pp. 2712–2718.
21. Cai, W.; Cowan, T.; Thatcher, M. Rainfall reductions over Southern Hemisphere semi-arid regions: The role of subtropical dry zone expansion. Sci. Rep. 2012, 2, 702.
22. Friend, A.D.; Lucht, W.; Rademacher, T.T.; Keribin, R.; Betts, R.; Cadule, P.; Ciais, P.; Clark, D.B.; Dankers, R.; Falloon, P.D.; et al. Carbon residence time dominates uncertainty in terrestrial vegetation responses to future climate and atmospheric CO2. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2014, 111, 3280–3285.
23. Zhang, Y.; Qi, W.; Zhou, C.; Ding, M.; Liu, L.; Gao, J.; Bai, W.; Wang, Z.; Zheng, D. Spatial and temporal variability in the net primary production of alpine grassland on the Tibetan Plateau since 1982. J. Geogr. Sci. 2014, 24, 269–287.
24. Zeng, Z.; Li, Y.; Wu, W.; Zhou, Y.; Wang, X.; Huang, H.; Li, Z. Spatio-Temporal Variation of Drought within the Vegetation Growing Season in North Hemisphere (1982–2015). Water 2020, 12, 2146.
25. Zhao, X.; Zhu, H.; Dong, K.; Li, D. Plant Community and Succession in Lowland Grasslands under Saline-Alkali Conditions with Grazing Exclusion. Agron. J. 2017, 109, 2428–2437.
26. Vijith, H.; Hurmain, A.; Dodge-Wan, D. Impacts of land use changes and land cover alteration on soil erosion rates and vulnerability of tropical mountain ranges in Borneo. Remote Sens. Appl. Soc. Environ. 2018, 12, 57–69.
27. Pearson, R.G.; Phillips, S.J.; Loranty, M.; Beck, P.S.A.; Damoulas, T.; Knight, S.J.; Goetz, S. Shifts in Arctic vegetation and associated feedbacks under climate change. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2013, 3, 673–677.
28. Friend, A.D.; Arneth, A.; Kiang, N.Y.; Lomas, M.; Ogee, J.; Rödenbeck, C.; Running, S.W.; Santaren, J.-D.; Sitch, S.; Viovy, N.; et al. FLUXNET and modelling the global carbon cycle. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2007, 13, 610–633.
29. Kogan, F.; Salazar, L.; Roytman, L. Forecasting crop production using satellite-based vegetation health indices in Kansas, USA. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2011, 33, 2798–2814.
30. Afuye, G.A.; Ojeh, V.N.; Okunlola, B.A.; Adejokun, V.F. Heat-Sum Calculation in Forecasting Maize Phenological Stages and Harvesting Date in Lagos South West, Nigeria. J. Geogr. Environ. Earth Sci. Int. 2018, 1, 1–12.
31. Afuye, G.A.; Ojeh, V.N. Temporal Variations in Ambient Carbon Monoxide Concentrations between Weekdays and Weekends in Akure Central Business District, South West Nigeria. Phys. Sci. Int. J. 2017, 1, 1–2.
32. Wu, M.; Schurgers, G.; Rummukainen, M.; Smith, B.; Samuelsson, P.; Jansson, C.; Siltberg, J.; May, W. Vegetation–climate feedbacks modulate rainfall patterns in Africa under future climate change. Earth Syst. Dyn. 2016, 7, 627–647.
33. Klein, C.; Bliefernicht, J.; Heinzeller, D.; Gessner, U.; Klein, I.; Kunstmann, H. Feedback of observed interannual vegetation change: A regional climate model analysis for the West African monsoon. Clim. Dyn. 2017, 48, 2837–2858.
34. Marston, R.A. Geomorphology and vegetation on hill slopes: Interactions, dependencies, and feedback loops. Geomorphology 2010, 116, 206–217.
35. Nagy, L.; Artaxo, P.; Forsberg, B.R. Interactions between Biosphere, Atmosphere, and Human Land Use in the Amazon Basin: An Introduction. In Interactions between Biosphere, Atmosphere and Human Land Use in the Amazon Basin; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2016; pp. 3–15.
36. Jiang, L.; Bao, A.; Guo, H.; Ndayisaba, F. Vegetation dynamics and responses to climate change and human ac-tivities in Central Asia. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 599, 967–980.
37. Singh, R.P.; Roy, S.; Kogan, F. Vegetation and temperature condition indices from NOAA AVHRR data for drought monitoring over India. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2003, 24, 4393–4402.
38. Djebou, D.C.S.; Singh, V.P.; Frauenfeld, O.W. Vegetation response to precipitation across the aridity gradient of the Southwestern United States. J. Arid. Environ. 2015, 115, 35–43.
39. Zhang, Y.; Zhang, C.; Wang, Z.; Chen, Y.; Gang, C.; An, R.; Li, J. Vegetation dynamics and its driving forces from climate change and human activities in the Three-River Source Region, China from 1982 to 2012. Sci. Total Environ. 2016, 563-564, 210–220.
40. Penuelas, J.; Poulter, B.; Sardans, J.; Ciais, P.; Van Der Velde, M.; Bopp, L.; Janssens, I.A. Human-induced ni-trogen–phosphorus imbalances alter natural and managed ecosystems across the globe. Nat. Commun. 2013, 4, 1–10.
41. Xiao, J.; Moody, A. Geographical distribution of global greening trends and their climatic correlates: 1982–1998. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2005, 26, 2371–2390.
42. Forster, S.; Kuhlmann, B.; Lindenschmidt, K.E.; Bronstert, A. Assessing flood risk for a rural detention area. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2008, 8, 311–322.
43. Wang, Z.; Huang, Z.; Li, J.; Zhong, R.; Huang, W. Assessing impacts of meteorological drought on vegetation at catchment scale in China based on SPEI and NDVI. Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng. 2016, 32, 177–186.
44. Adepoju, K.; Adelabu, S.; Fashae, O. Vegetation Response to Recent Trends in Climate and Landuse Dynamics in a Typical Humid and Dry Tropical Region under Global Change. Adv. Meteorol. 2019, 2019, 1–15.
45. Peng, S.; Chen, A.; Xu, L.; Cao, C.; Fang, J.; Myneni, R.; Pinzon, J.E.; Tucker, C.J.; Piao, S. Recent change of vegetation growth trend in China. Environ. Res. Lett. 2011, 6, 044027.
46. Hadramout and Al-Mahara. Damage, Losses and Needs Assessment October, Tropical Storm and Floods; Republic of Yemen, Government of the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Socie-ties (IFRC), World Bank, United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) 2009, 217, 1–187. Available online: (accessed on 6 October 2009).
47. Gratani, L. Plant Phenotypic Plasticity in Response to Environmental Factors. Adv. Bot. 2014, 2014, 1–17.
48. Tessema, Z.; de Boer, W.; Baars, R.; Prins, H. Changes in soil nutrients, vegetation structure and herbaceous biomass in response to grazing in a semi-arid savanna of Ethiopia. J. Arid. Environ. 2011, 75, 662–670.
49. Eldridge, D.J.; Poore, A.G.; Ruiz-Colmenero, M.; Letnic, M.; Soliveres, S. Ecosystem structure, function, and composition in rangelands are negatively affected by livestock grazing. Ecol. Appl. 2016, 26, 1273–1283.
50. IPCC. Climate Change 2014–Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects; Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Barros, V.R., Field, C.B., Dokken, D.J., Mastrandrea, M.D., Mach, K.J., Bilir, T.E., Chatterjee, M., Ebi, K.L., Estrada, Y.O., Genova, R.C., et al., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge UK; New York, NY, USA, 2014; p. 688.
51. Dube, T.; Moyo, P.; Ncube, M.; Nyathi, D. The Impact of Climate Change on Agro-Ecological Based Livelihoods in Africa: A Review. J. Sustain. Dev. 2016, 9, 256.
52. Olsson, L.; Opondo, M.; Tschakert, P.; Agrawal, A.; Eriksen, S.; Ma, S. Livelihoods and Poverty: Climate change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part A: Global and sectoral aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. In Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects; Field, C.B., Barros, V.R., Dokken, D.J., Mach, K.J., Mastrandrea, M.D., Bilir, T.E., Chatterjee, M., Ebi, K.L., Estrada, Y.O., Genova, R.C., et al., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2014; pp. 793–832.
53. Eckstein, D.; Künzel, V.; Schäfer, L.; Winges, M. Global Climate Risk Index 2020; Germanwatch: Bonn, Germany, 2019; Available online: (accessed on 12 December 2019).
54. Handmer, J.; Honda, Y.; Kundzewicz, Z.W.; Arnell, N.; Benito, G.; Hatfield, J.; Mohamed, I.F.; Peduzzi, P.; Wu, S.; Sherstyukov, B.; et al. Changes in impacts of climate extremes: Human systems and ecosystems. In Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation: Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge UK; New York, NY, USA, 2012; pp. 231–290.
55. Cramer, W.; Yohe, G.; Auffhammer, M.; Huggel, C. Detection and Attribution of Observed Impacts. In Climate Change 2014 Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Working Group II Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Field, C.B., Barros, V.R., Dokken, D.J., Mach, K.J., Mastrandrea, M.D., Bilir, T.E., Chatterjee, M., Ebi, K.L., Estrada, Y.O., Genova, R.C., et al., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge UK; New York, NY, USA, 2014; pp. 979–1037.
56. Piya, L.; Maharjan, K.L.; Joshi, N.P. Socioeconomic Issues of Climate Change: A Livelihood Analysis from Nepal; Socioeconomic Issues of Climate Change; Springer: Singapore, 2019; pp. 153–160.
57. Hulme, P.E. Addressing the threat to biodiversity from botanic gardens. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2011, 26, 168–174.
58. McMichael, A.J.; Lindgren, E. Climate change: Present and future risks to health, and necessary responses. J. Intern. Med. 2011, 270, 401–413.
59. Qian, W.; Zhu, Y. Climate Change in China from 1880 to 1998 and its Impact on the Environmental Condition. Clim. Chang. 2001, 50, 419–444.
60. Kurukulasuriya, P.; Rosenthal, S. Climate Change and Agriculture: A Review of Impacts and Adaptations; 2013; pp. 3–106. Available online: (accessed on 6 June 2012).
61. Debortoli, N.S.; Camarinha, P.I.M.; Marengo, J.A.; Rodrigues, R.R. An index of Brazil’s vulnerability to expected increases in natural flash flooding and landslide disasters in the context of climate change. Nat. Hazards 2017, 86, 557–582.
62. Knowlton, J.L.; Graham, C.H. Using behavioural landscape ecology to predict species’ responses to land-use and climate change. Biol. Conserv. 2010, 143, 1342–1354.
63. Bouwer, L.M. Observed and projected impacts from extreme weather events: Implications for loss and damage. In Loss and Damage from Climate Change; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2019; pp. 63–82.
64. Marengo, J.A.; Espinoza, J.C. Extreme seasonal droughts and floods in Amazonia: Causes, trends and impacts. Int. J. Clim.. 2016, 36, 1033–1050.
65. Wamsler, C.; Niven, L.; Beery, T.; Bramryd, T.; Ekelund, N.; Jönsson, K.I.; Osmani, A.; Palo, T. St Operationalizing ecosystem-based adaptation: Harnessing ecosystem services to buffer communities against climate change. Ecol. Soc. 2016, 21.
66. Kittel, T.G. The Vulnerability of Biodiversity to Rapid Climate Change. Vulnerability of Ecosystems to Climate; Seastedt, T.R., Suding, K., Eds.; Elsevier Inc., Academic Press: Oxford, UK, 2013; pp. 185–201.
67. Nath, P.K.; Behera, B. A critical review of impact of and adaptation to climate change in developed and developing economies. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2011, 13, 141–162.
68. Mugambiwa, S.S.; Tirivangasi, H.M. Climate change: A threat towards achieving Sustainable Development Goal number two’ (end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture) in South Africa. J. Disaster Risk Stud. 2017, 9, 1–6.
69. Sintayehu, D.W. Impact of climate change on biodiversity and associated key ecosystem services in Africa: A sys-tematic review. Ecosyst. Health Sustain. 2018, 4, 225–239.
70. Wessels, K.J.; van den Bergh, F.; Scholes, R.J. Limits to detectability of land degradation by trend analysis of veg-etation index data. Remote Sens. Environ. 2012, 125, 10–22.
71. Thornton, P.K.; Ericksen, P.J.; Herrero, M.; Challinor, A.J. Climate variability and vulnerability to climate change: A review. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2014, 20, 3313–3328.
72. Mantyka-pringle, C.S.; Martin, T.G.; Rhodes, J.R. Interactions between climate and habitat loss effects on bio-diversity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2012, 18, 1239–1252.
73. Chapin Iii, F.S.; Zavaleta, E.S.; Eviner, V.T.; Naylor, R.L.; Vitousek, P.M.; Reynolds, H.L.; Hooper, D.U.; Lavorel, S.; Sala, O.E.; Hobbie, S.E.; et al. Consequences of changing biodiversity. Nat. Cell Biol. 2000, 405, 234–242.
74. Oliver, T.H.; Heard, M.S.; Isaac, N.J.; Roy, D.B.; Procter, D.; Eigenbrod, F.; Bullock, J.M. Biodiversity and re-silience of ecosystem functions. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2015, 30, 673–684.
75. Seidl, R.; Thom, D.; Kautz, M.; Martin-Benito, D.; Peltoniemi, M.; Vacchiano, G.; Wild, J.; Ascoli, D.; Petr, M.; Honkaniemi, J.; et al. Forest disturbances under climate change. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2017, 7, 395–402.
76. Cunha, A.P.M.A.; Alvalá, R.C.S.; Kubota, P.Y.; Vieira, R.M.S.P. Impacts of land use and land cover changes on the climate over Northeast Brazil. Atmos. Sci. Lett. 2015, 16, 219–227.
77. De Groot, R.S.; Fisher, B.; Christie, M.; Aronson, J.; Braat, L.; Haines-Young, R.; Gowdy, J.; Maltby, E.; Neuville, A.; Polasky, S.; et al. Integrating the ecological and economic dimensions in biodiversity and ecosystem service valuation. In The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB): Ecological and Economic Foundations; Earthscan, Routledge: Oxfordshire, UK, 2010; pp. 9–40.
78. Kehinde, T.; Amusan, B.; Ayansola, A.; Oyelade, S.; Adu, W. Status of insect diversity conservation in Nigeria: A review. J. Sci. 2014, 16, 319–330.
79. Kittel, T.G.; Howard, S.G.; Horn, H.; Kittel, G.M.; Fairbarns, M.; Iachetti, P. A vulnerability-based strategy to incorporate climate change in regional conservation planning: Framework and case study for the British Columbia Central Interior. J. Ecosyst. Manag. 2011, 12, 7–35.
80. Morelli, T.L.; Barrows, C.W.; Ramirez, A.R.; Cartwright, J.M.; Ackerly, D.D.; Eaves, T.D.; Ebersole, J.L.; Krawchuk, M.A.; Letcher, B.H.; Mahalovich, M.F.; et al. Climate-change refugia: Biodiversity in the slow lane. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2020, 18, 228–234.
81. Coad, L.; Leverington, F.; Knights, K.; Geldmann, J.; Eassom, A.; Kapos, V.; Kingston, N.; de Lima, M.; Zamora, C.; Cuardros, I.; et al. Measuring impact of protected area management interventions: Current and future use of the Global Database of Protected Area Management Effectiveness. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2015, 370, 20140281.
82. Walz, Y.; Min, A.; Dall, K.; Duguru, M.; de Leon, J.-C.V.; Graw, V.; Dubovyk, O.; Sebesvari, Z.; Jordaan, A.; Post, J. Monitoring progress of the Sendai Framework using a geospatial model: The example of people affected by agricultural droughts in Eastern Cape, South Africa. Prog. Disaster Sci. 2020, 5, 100062.
83. Skarbit, N.; Stewart, I.D.; Unger, J.; Gál, T. Employing an urban meteorological network to monitor air temperature conditions in the ‘local climate zones’ of Szeged, Hungary. Int. J. Clim. 2017, 37, 582–596.
84. Pan, Y.; Birdsey, R.A.; Phillips, O.L.; Jackson, R.B. The structure, distribution, and biomass of the world’s forests. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 2013, 44, 593–622.
85. Loranty, M.M.; Abbott, B.W.; Blok, D.; Douglas, T.A.; Epstein, H.E.; Forbes, B.C.; Jones, B.M.; Kholodov, A.L.; Kropp, H.; Malhotra, A.; et al. Reviews and syntheses: Changing ecosystem influences on soil thermal regimes in northern high-latitude permafrost regions. Biogeosciences 2018, 15, 5287–5313.
86. Dong, S.X.; Davies, S.J.; Ashton, P.S.; Bunyavejchewin, S.; Supardi, M.N.; Kassim, A.R.; Moorcroft, P.R. Var-iability in solar radiation and temperature explains observed patterns and trends in tree growth rates across four tropical forests. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2012, 279, 3923–3931.
87. Zhou, J.; Zhang, F.; Xu, Y.; Gao, Y.; Zhao, X. Relationship Between Vegetation Coverage and Rural Settlements and Anti-desertification Strategies in Horqin Left Back Banner, Inner Mongolia, China. In International Conference on Computer and Computing Technologies in Agriculture; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2016; Volume 478, pp. 125–142.
88. MacLean, I.M.D.; Suggitt, A.J.; Wilson, R.; Duffy, J.P.; Bennie, J.J. Fine-scale climate change: Modelling spatial variation in biologically meaningful rates of warming. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2016, 23, 256–268.
89. Kumar, M.A.N.O.J. Analysing Impacts of Climate Change on Forests of Uttarakhand Using Dynamic Vegetation Model. Ph.D. Thesis, Forest Research Institute Deemed to be University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India, 2018.
90. Wu, D.H.; Zhao, X.; Liang, S.L.; Zhou, T.; Huang, K.C.; Tang, B.J.; Zhao, W.Q. Time-lag effects of global vegetation responses to climate change. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2015, 21, 3520–3531.
91. IPCC. Climate Change IPCC, WGI Fourth Assessment Report, Summary for Policy Makers; IPCC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2007; pp. 104–116.
92. Hou, W.; Gao, J.; Wu, S.; Dai, E. Interannual variations in growing-season NDVI and its correlation with climate variables in the southwestern karst region of China. Remote Sens. 2015, 7, 11105–11124.
93. Du, J.; Quan, Z.; Fang, S.; Liu, C.; Wu, J.; Fu, Q. Spatiotemporal changes in vegetation coverage and its causes in China since the Chinese economic reform. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2020, 27, 1144–1159.
94. Mahowald, N.; Albani, S.; Kok, J.; Engelstaeder, S.; Scanza, R.; Ward, D.S.; Flanner, M.G. The size distribution of desert dust aerosols and its impact on the Earth system. Aeolian Res. 2014, 15, 53–71.
95. Baldi, G.; Texeira, M.; Murray, F.; Jobbágy, E.G. Vegetation Productivity in Natural vs. Cultivated Systems along Water Availability Gradients in the Dry Subtropics. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0168168.
96. Buyantuyev, A.; Wu, J. Urbanization alters spatiotemporal patterns of ecosystem primary production: A case study of the Phoenix metropolitan region, USA. J. Arid. Environ. 2009, 73, 512–520.
97. Li, Z.; Chen, Y.; Li, W.; Deng, H.; Fang, G. Potential impacts of climate change on vegetation dynamics in Central Asia. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 2015, 120, 12345–12356.
98. Propastin, P.; Kappas, M.; Muratova, N.; Propastin, P.; Kappas, M.; Muratova, N. A remote sensing based monitoring system for discrimination between climate and human-induced vegetation change in Central Asia. Manag. Environ. Qual. Int. J. 2008, 19, 579–596.
99. Wisner, B.; Blaikie, P.; Blaikie, P.M.; Cannon, T.; Davis, I. At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disasters; Psychology Press: London, UK, 2004.
100. Forsius, M.; Anttila, S.; Arvola, L.; Bergström, I.; Hakola, H.; Heikkinen, H.I.; Keskinen, T. Impacts and adaptation options of climate change on ecosystem services in Finland: A model based study. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2013, 5, 26–40.
101. Piao, S.; Liu, Q.; Chen, A.; Janssens, I.A.; Fu, Y.; Dai, J.; Liu, L.; Lian, X.; Shen, M.; Zhu, X. Plant phenology and global climate change: Current progresses and challenges. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2019, 25, 1922–1940.
102. Jamieson, M.A.; Trowbridge, A.; Raffa, K.F.; Lindroth, R.L. Consequences of Climate Warming and Altered Precipitation Patterns for Plant-Insect and Multitrophic Interactions. Plant Physiol. 2012, 160, 1719–1727.
103. Lovejoy, S. Return periods of global climate fluctuations and the pause. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2014, 41, 4704–4710.
104. Nyingi, W.; Oguge, N.; Dziba, L.; Chandipo, R.; Didier, T.A.; Gandiwa, E.; Von Maltitz, G.P. Direct and Indirect Drivers of Change in Biodiversity and Nature’s Contributions to People; The IPBES regional assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services for Africa; Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES): Bonn, Germany, 2018; pp. 207–296. Available online: (accessed on 18 March 2018).
105. Zhao, P.; Yang, S.; Yu, R. Long-Term Changes in Rainfall over Eastern China and Large-Scale Atmospheric Circulation Associated with Recent Global Warming. J. Clim. 2010, 23, 1544–1562.
106. Ali, S.; Henchiri, M.; Yao, F.; Zhang, J. Analysis of vegetation dynamics, drought in relation with climate over South Asia from 1990 to 2011. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019, 26, 11470–11481.
107. Dyosi, M.; Kalumba, A.M.; Magagula, H.; Zhou, L.; Orimoloye, I.R. Drought conditions appraisal using geoinformatics and multi-influencing factors. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2021, 193, 1–19.
108. Germer, S.; Kaiser, K.; Bens, O.; Hüttl, R.F. Water balance changes and responses of ecosystems and society in the Berlin-Brandenburg region–a review. J. Geogr. Soc. Berl. 2011, 142, 65–95.
109. Pinzon, J.E.; Tucker, C.J. A non-stationary 1981–2012 AVHRR NDVI3g time series. Remote Sens. 2014, 6, 6929–6960.
110. Nzabarinda, V.; Bao, A.; Xu, W.; Uwamahoro, S.; Jiang, L.; Duan, Y.; Nahayo, L.; Yu, T.; Wang, T.; Long, G. Assessment and Evaluation of the Response of Vegetation Dynamics to Climate Variability in Africa. Sustainability 2021, 13, 1234.
111. Du, J.; Shu, J.; Yin, J.; Yuan, X.; Jiaerheng, A.; Xiong, S.; He, P.; Liu, W. Analysis on spatio-temporal trends and drivers in vegetation growth during recent decades in Xinjiang, China. Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 2015, 38, 216–228.
112. Anazawa, M.; Saito, G.; Sawada, Y.; Sawada, H. In Proceedings of the Vegetation Monitoring Study using Leaf Water Content Index (LWCI) and NDVI. Presented at the 22nd Asian Conference on Remote Sensing. Singapore, 5–9 November 2001; Volume 5, p. 9.
113. Liang, S.; Yi, Q.; Liu, J. Vegetation dynamics and responses to recent climate change in Xinjiang using leaf area index as an indicator. Ecol. Indic. 2015, 58, 64–76.
114. Peng, D.; Zhang, H.; Yu, L.; Wu, M.; Wang, F.; Huang, W.; Liu, L.; Sun, R.; Li, C.; Wang, D.; et al. Assessing spectral indices to estimate the fraction of photosynthetically active radiation absorbed by the vegetation canopy. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2018, 39, 8022–8040.
115. Pei, F.; Wu, C.; Liu, X.; Li, X.; Yang, K.; Zhou, Y.; Xia, G. Monitoring the vegetation activity in China using veg-etation health indices. Agric. For. Meteorol. 2018, 248, 215–227.
116. Tsiros, E.; Domenikiotis, C.; Spiliotopoulos, M.; Dalezios, N.R. Use of NOAA/AVHRR-based vegetation condition index (VCI) and temperature condition index (TCI) for drought monitoring in Thessaly, Greece. In Proceedings of the EWRA Symposium on Water Resources Management: Risks and Challenges for the 21st Century, Izmir, Turkey, 2–4 September 2004; pp. 2–4.
117. Karnieli, A.; Bayasgalan, M.; Bayarjargal, Y.; Agam, N.; Khudulmur, S.; Tucker, C.J. Comments on the use of the Vegetation Health Index over Mongolia. Int. J. Remote Sens. 2006, 27, 2017–2024.
118. Rhyma, P.P.; Norizah, K.; Hamdan, O.; Faridah-Hanum, I.; Zulfa, A.W. Integration of normalised different vegetation index and Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index for mangrove vegetation delineation. Remote Sens. Appl. Soc. Environ. 2020, 17, 100280.
119. Iizuka, A. Developing capacity for disaster risk reduction: Lessons learned from a case of Sri Lanka. Prog. Disaster Sci. 2020, 6, 100073.
120. Rivera, J.D.; Ceesay, A.A.; Sillah, A. Challenges to disaster risk management in The Gambia: A preliminary investigation of the disaster management system’s structure. Prog. Disaster Sci. 2020, 6, 100075.
121. Popoola, O.O.; Monde, N.; Yusuf, S.F.G. Perception and Adaptation Responses to Climate Change: An Assessment of Smallholder Livestock Farmers in Amathole District Municipality, Eastern Cape Province. S. Afr. J. Agric. Ext. 2019, 47, 46–57.